Mount Tambora (or Tomboro) is an active stratovolcano located on the island of Sumbawa, Indonesia. The mountain is located in the two districts, namely Dompu (partially feet south side to the northwest, and Bima (part of the southern side of the slope to the northwest, and the feet to the top of the east side to the north), West Nusa Tenggara province, on 8 ° 15 'latitude and 118 ° east. The mountain is located in both the north and south side of the oceanic crust. Tambora was formed by the subduction zone beneath it. It increases the Tambora up to 4,300 m altitude that makes this mountain was once one of the highest peaks in the archipelago and drying a large magma chamber inside the mountain. It took a century to refill the magma chamber.
Volcanic activity volcano culminated in April 1815 when it erupted in the scale of seven on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. Most serious eruption becomes eruption since the eruption of Lake Taupo in the year 181. The explosion was heard on Sumatra island (more than 2,000 km). Volcanic ash has fallen in Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java and Maluku. The explosion caused the death of up to no less than 71,000 people with whom 11,000-12,000 killed directly as a result of the eruption. In fact, some researchers estimate up to 92,000 people were killed, but this figure is doubtful because based on estimates that are too high. Moreover, this eruption caused global climate change. The next year (1816) is often referred to as the year without summer because the weather changes drastically from North America and Europe because of the dust produced from Tambora's eruption. Due to drastic climate change is a lot of crop failure and livestock deaths in the Northern Hemisphere that caused the worst famine of the 19th century.
During archaeological excavations in 2004, a team of archaeologists found the remains of culture buried by the eruption of 1815 at a depth of 3 meters in pyroclastic deposits. Artifacts were found in the same position when the eruption occurred in 1815. Because of the characteristics of this similar, these findings are often referred to as the Pompeii of the east.
Geography.
Mount Tambora is situated on the island of Sumbawa, which is part of the islands of Nusa Tenggara. This mountain is part of the Sunda arc, ropes of volcanic islands that make up the southern chain of the Indonesian archipelago. Tambora establish its own peninsula on the island of Sumbawa called Sanggar peninsula. On the north side of the peninsula, there is Flores Sea, and in the south there is a gulf Saleh with 86 km long and 36 km wide. At the mouth of the bay Saleh, there is a small island called Mojo.
In addition to seismological and volcanologist who observed the activity of the volcano, Mount Tambora is an area for scientific research of archaeologists and biologists. The mountain also attracts tourists for hiking and wildlife activities. Dompu and Bima is a city that is located closest to the mountain. On the slopes of Mount Tambora, there are several villages. In the east there is the village Studio. In the northwest, there is the village of Doro Peti and villages Bed & Breakfast. In the west, there Calabai village.
There are two hiking trails to reach the mountain Tambora caldera. The first route starts from Doro Mboha village located on the southeast side of Mount Tambora. This route follows the paved road through a cashew plantation until it reaches an altitude of 1,150 m above sea level. The route ends in the southern part of the caldera with a height of 1.950 m which can be reached by the mid point of the hiking trail. This location is normally used as a tent to observe volcanic activity because it only takes one hour to reach the caldera. The second route starts from Pancasila village on the northwest side of Mount Tambora. If using a second route, the caldera can only be reached on foot.
Geological history.
Formation.
Tambora stretches 340 km north of the Java trench system and 180-190 km above the subduction zone. The mountain is located in both the north and south side of the oceanic crust. This mountain has a convergence rate of 7.8 cm per year. Tambora is estimated to have been in the earth since 57.000 BP (radiocarbon dating standards) When the mountain is rising as a result of geological processes underneath, a large magma chamber is formed and simultaneously participate emptied magma. Mojo Island, too, formed as part of this geological process in which bay Saleh was originally an ocean basin (about 25,000 BP)
According to geological investigation, a high volcanic cone has been formed prior to the eruption of 1815 with the same characteristics as the shape of a stratovolcano. The hole diameter reaches 60 km. The main hole often emit lava flowing down regularly with heavy to steep slopes.
Since the eruption of 1815, at the bottom there are deposits of lava and pyroclastic material. Approximately 40% of the 1-4 m layer is represented by thin lava flows. Thin scoria produced by fragmentation of lava flows. At the top, lava covered by scoria, tuff and pyroclastic rocks cascading down. At Mount Tambora, there are 20 craters. Some craters have a name, such as Tahe (877 m), Molo (602 m), Kadiendinae, the Dome (1648 m) and Doro Api Toi. The crater also produce basalt lava flows.
Historical eruptions.
By using radiocarbon dating techniques, stated that Mount Tambora had erupted three times before the eruption of 1815, but the magnitude of the eruption is not known. Estimated date of eruption was in 3910 BC ± 200 years, 3050 BC and 740 ± 150 years. The third eruption eruptions have the same characteristics. Each of these eruptions has a major eruption in the hole, but there are exceptions for the third eruption. In the third eruption, there are no pyroclastic flows.
In 1812, Mount Tambora became more active, with a peak eruption occurred in April 1815. The eruption of the entry into seven scale Volcanic explosivity index (VEI), the number of bursts of tephra of 1.6 × 1011 cubic meters. Characteristics eruptions including eruptions in the main hole, pyroclastic flows, loss of life, damage to soil and land, the tsunami and the collapse of the caldera. The third eruption affect the global climate in a long time. Tambora activity after the eruption of new stop on 15 July 1815. Further activities then take place in August 1819 in the presence of a small eruption with fire and rumbling sounds accompanied by aftershocks that are considered part of the eruption in 1815. The eruption was included in the scale both on the VEI scale. Around 1880 ± 30 years, Tambora erupted, but only within the caldera. These eruptions create small lava flows and lava dome extrusion, which then formed a new crater named Doro Api Toi inside the caldera.
Mount Tambora is still active status. Small lava domes and lava flows still occur on the floor of the caldera in the 19th century and 20th century. The last eruption occurred in 1967, which was accompanied by an earthquake and measured on a scale of 0 VEI, which means that the eruption happened without the explosion.
The eruption in 1815.
Chronology of the eruption.
Estimated area affected by the ash eruption of Tambora in 1815. The area of red indicates the thickness of volcanic ash. The ash reached the island of Borneo and Sulawesi (thickness 1 cm).
Mount Tambora experienced inactivity for several centuries before 1815, the volcano known as "sleep", which is the result of a cooling of hydrous magma in the magma chamber is closed. In the magma chamber in a depth of about 1.5 to 4.5 km, a solid solution of a high-pressure fluid magma formed during cooling and crystallization of magma. The pressure in the magma chamber about 4-5 kbar appear and a temperature of 700 ° C-850 ° C.
In 1812, Mount Tambora caldera began to rumble and generated a dark cloud. On April 5, 1815, the eruption occurred, followed by the sound of thunder is heard in Makassar, Sulawesi (380 km from Mount Tambora), Batavia (now Jakarta) in Java (1,260 km from Mount Tambora), and Ternate in the Moluccas (1400 km of Mount Tambora). The thunder sound audible to the island of Sumatra on 10-11 April 1815 (more than 2,600 km of Mount Tambora), which was initially regarded as a gunshot rifle. On the morning of April 6, 1815, volcanic ash began to fall in East Java with the sound of thunder sounded until the date of 10 April 1815.
At 7:00 pm on 10 April, the eruption is getting stronger. Three rows of fire emanated and join. The whole mountain turned into a huge stream of fire. Pumice rocks with a diameter of 20 cm began to rain at 8:00 pm, followed by ash at 9: 00-10: 00 pm. Hot pyroclastic flows flowing down towards the sea on all sides of the peninsula, destroying the village of Tambora. Loud explosions were heard until late afternoon, 11 April. Abu spreads to West Java and South Sulawesi. Smell "nitrates" wafted in Batavia and heavy rains accompanied by ash tephra fall, eventually subsides between dated 11 and 17 April 1815.
The first eruption heard on this island on the afternoon of April 5, they realize every quarter of an hour, and continued at intervals until the next day. His voice, at first instance, is almost considered sound cannons; so much so that a detachment of soldiers moving from Djocjocarta, with estimates that the nearest post was attacked, and along the coast, the boats are sent on two occasions in the search for a ship that should be in a state of emergency.
Reports Thomas Stamford Raffles.
The eruption is included in the scale of seven on a scale Volcanic explosivity index. The eruption was four times more powerful than the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. An estimated 100 km³ pyroclastic trakiandesit issued, with an estimated mass of 1.4 × 1014 kg. This has left a caldera with a size of 6-7 km and a depth of 600-700 m. The density of the ash that fell in Makassar was 636 kg / m². Before the eruption, Mount Tambora has a height of approximately 4,300 m, one of the highest peak in Indonesia. After the eruption, the height of the mountain is just as high as 2,851 m.
Tambora eruption in 1815 was the largest eruptions in history. The explosion was heard as far as 2,600 km, and ash fell at least as far as 1,300 km. Darkness visible as far as 600 km from the top of the mountain for more than two days. Pyroclastic flows spread at least 20 km from the summit.
Result.
All plants on the island were destroyed. Fallen trees mixed with pumice ash into the sea and form a raft to cross a distance of more than 5 km. Pumice rafts were found in the Indian Ocean, near Kolkata on October 1 and October 3, 1815. with thick ash clouds still covered the peak on April 23. Explosions stopped on July 15, although the emission of smoke is still visible on 23 August. Fire and aftershocks were reported in August 1819, four years after the eruption.
When passing through the entire Dompo and many parts of Bima, massive misery on a population that is reduced gives a great blow against the eyesight. There are still bodies in the street and a sign many others have been buried, almost completely abandoned villages and houses collapsed, survivors difficulty finding food.
Since the eruption, diarrhea attack residents in Bima, Dompo, and Sang'ir, which attacks the large population. Allegedly population ash contaminated drinking water, and horses also died in large numbers for the same problem.
Large tsunami attacked the coast several islands in Indonesia on April 10, with a height of over 4 m in the studio at 10:00 pm. 1-2 m high tsunami reported in Besuki, East Java before midnight and 2 m high tsunami occurred in the Moluccas.
High smoke eruption reached the stratosphere, with a height of more than 43 km. Ash particles fell 1 to 2 weeks after the eruption, but there are ash particles that remain in the atmosphere for a few months to several years at an altitude of 10-30 km. Wind longitude of the particles spread around the world, making the occurrence of the phenomenon. Colored sunset and dusk seen in London, England between June 28 and July 2, 1815 and September 3 and October 7, 1815. twilight sky glow orange or red appear near the horizon and purple or pink on top.
Estimates of mortality vary, depending on the source. Zollinger (1855) estimates that 10,000 people died from pyroclastic flows. On the island of Sumbawa, there were 38,000 deaths due to starvation, and another 10,000 due to disease and famine on the island of Lombok. Petroeschevsky (1949) estimates that around 48,000 and 44,000 people were killed in Sumbawa and Lombok. Some authors use Petroeschevsky figures, such as Stothers (1984), which states the number of deaths amounted to 88,000. Tanguy (1998) claims Petroeschevsky figures could not be found and by reference to which can not be tracked. Tanguy revised the number of deaths based on two sources, the source of Zollinger, who spent several months in Sumbawa after the eruption and Raffles records. Tanguy shows that there are many victims in Bali and East Java due to disease and starvation. An estimated 11,000 died from the direct influence of the volcano and 49,000 by disease epidemics and starvation after the eruption. Oppenheimer (2003) state the number of deaths of more than 71,000 inhabitants.
Global influence.
Total concentration of sulfate in ice cores from Greenland middle, dates were calculated with seasonal oxygen isotope variation. There is no known eruption in 1810's.
The eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815 issued a sulfur into the stratosphere, causing global climate irregularities. Different methods have estimated the amount of sulfur released during the eruption: the petrological method, a measurement based on anatomical observations, and ice core sulfate concentration method, using ice from Greenland and Antarctica. Estimates vary depending on the method, between 10 to 120 Tg Tg S S.
In the spring and summer of 1816, a dry fog visible in the northeastern United States. The fog redden and reduce sunlight, such as sunspots are visible to the naked eye. Either wind or rain can not eliminate the "fog" is. "Fog" is identified as stratospheric sulfate aerosol mist. In the summer of 1816, countries in the Northern Hemisphere suffered because of the changing weather conditions, known as the Year Without a Summer. World normal temperature is reduced by about 0.4-0.7 ° C, enough to cause problems of agriculture in the world. On June 4, 1816, frosts were reported in Connecticut, and and the next day, almost all of New England was gripped by the cold. On June 6, 1816, snow fell in Albany, New York, and Dennysville, Maine. Similar conditions occurred for at least three months and causing crop failure in North America. Canada experienced a very cold summer. 30 cm of snow accumulated near Quebec City from 6 to June 10, 1816.
1816 was the second coldest year in the Northern Hemisphere since 1400 AD, after the eruption of Huaynaputina in Peru in 1600. In 1810's was a decade of the coldest on record as a result of the eruption of Tambora in 1815 and the other suspected eruptions occurred between 1809 and 1810 . Changes in surface temperature during the summer of 1816, 1817 and 1818 amounted to -0.51, -0.44 and -0.29 ° C, and the summers are cooler, a part of Europe experiencing more heavy snow storm.
Climate change blamed for an outbreak of typhoid in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean between 1816 and 1819. Many cattle died in New England during the winter of 1816-1817. Cool temperatures and heavy rains caused crop failure in the British Isles. Families in Wales flee and beg for food. Hunger prevalent in the north and southwest of Ireland as wheat, oat and potato crop failures. The crisis occurred in Germany, where food prices rose sharply. Due to price increases that are not known to cause a demonstration in front of the market and bakeries, followed by riots, arson and looting that occurred in many cities in Europe. This is the worst famine that occurred in the 19th century.
Archaeological evidence.
In the summer of 2004, a team from the University of Rhode Island, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, and Indonesian volcanology directorate, led by Haraldur Sigurdsson, start an archaeological excavation at Mount Tambora. After six weeks, the team unearthed evidence of the existence of a lost culture destroyed by the eruption of Mount Tambora. The site is located 25 km west of the caldera, in the forest, 5 km from the coast. The team must pass sediment volcanic pumice and ash with a thickness of 3 m.
The team used ground-penetrating radar to locate buried a small home. They dug back home and they found the remains of two adults, and also bowls bronze, iron tools and other artifacts. Design and decoration artifacts have similarities with artifacts from Vietnam and Cambodia. The test is done using a technique carbonization make it clear that they are formed from charcoal pencil formed by hot magma. Everyone, houses and culture are left as when they were in 1815. Sigurdsson call this culture as the Pompeii of the east. Based on the artifacts found, the majority of bronze objects, the team stated that these people are not poor. The historical evidence shows that people on the island of Sumbawa in the East Indies famous for honey, horses, wood Sepang (Caesalpinia sappan), producing red dye, and sandalwood used for incense and treatment. This area is known to be productive in the field of agriculture.
Archaeological findings make it clear that there is a culture that is destroyed by the eruption of 1815, title lost kingdom of Tambora called by the media. With this discovery, Sigurdsson intends to return to Tambora in 2007 to look for the rest of the village, and hoped to find the palace.
Ecosystems.
The research team led by botanists Switzerland, Heinrich Zollinger, arrived on the island of Sumbawa in 1847. Zollinger's mission is to study the eruption and its effects on the local ecosystem. He was the first to climb to the top of the mountain after the eruption of the volcano Tambora. The mountain is still covered by smoke. When Zollinger climb, his feet sunk several times through a thin surface crust toward the warm layer such as sulfur. Some plants re-grow and some trees were observed on the lower slopes. Casuarina forests recorded at 2200-2550 m. Some Imperata cylindrica can also be found.
Population began living in Mount Tambora in 1907. Planting of coffee began in the 1930s in the northwest slope of Mount Tambora, in the village of Concentrated. Rain forest called Duabangga moluccana has grown to a height of 1000-2800 m. The planting covers an area of 80,000 hectares (800 km²). The rain forest was discovered by the Dutch team, led by Koster and De Voogd 1933. They began their journey in the "area of almost barren, dry and hot" and they entered the "great hutam" with "big forest giant and magnificent". At an altitude of 1,100 m, they entered the montane forest. At an altitude of 1800 m, they find Dodonaea viscosa dominated by Casuarina trees. At the summit, they found little Anaphalis viscida and wahlenbergia.
56 species of birds found in 1896, including Crested White-eye. 12 other species found in 1981. Some research zoologist find other bird species on the mountain, resulting in the discovery of more than 90 species of birds. Yellow-crested cockatoo, Murai Asia, Tiong Gold, Green jungle fowl and a rainbow lorikeet hunted to be sold and maintained by the locals. Hirst-legged orange hunted for food. Bird exploitation leads to reduced bird populations. Yellow-crested Cockatoo nearly extinct on the island of Sumbawa.
Since 1972, commercial logging companies have been operating in this area, which led to a threat to the rainforest. Logging companies holding permits to cut timber in an area of 20,000 hectares (200 km²), or 25% of the area. [30] Section other rainforest is used for hunting. Among the hunting ground and ground clearance, there is a nature reserve, temat deer, buffalo, wild boar, bats, flying foxes, and various species of reptiles and birds can be found.
Observations.
Indonesia's population is increasing rapidly since the eruption in 1815. In 2006, the population of Indonesia has reached 222 million and 130 million people are on the island of Java and Bali. A volcanic eruption of Tambora eruption of 1815 will lead to greater mortality, so volcanic activity in Indonesia continues to be observed, including Mount Tambora.
Indonesia's seismological activity observed by the Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation Indonesia. Observation post for Mount Tambora is situated in the village of Doro Peti. They focused seismic and tectonic activity using seismometers. Since the eruption of 1880, there is an increase in seismic activity. Observations continue to be made in the caldera, especially in the crater Doro Api Toi.
Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation has asserted map Tambora volcano hazard mitigation. Two zones were declared the danger zone and the zone alert. Danger zone is the area that is directly affected by the eruption: pyroclastic flows, lava flows and pyroclastic fall of the other. These areas, including the Caldera and the surroundings, covers an area of 58.7 km². People are prohibited from living in the danger zone. Alert zone includes areas that may be directly affected by the eruption: lava flows and other floating rocks. Comprehensive alert area of 185 km², including Pasanggrahan, Doro Peti, Rao, Labuan Kenanga, GuBu Ponda, Kawindana Toi and Hoddo. Guwu river called the river located in the south and northwest of Mount Tambora is also inserted into the alert zone. Thank you for reading this article.
Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno.
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DatePublished: 27 April 2015 at 13:05
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