Did You Know About Polymerization.

Examples of alkene polymerisation, in which each double bond Styrene monomer units reformed as a single bond with another styrene monomer and forms polystyrene.
Polymerization is a process of reacting monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to form three-dimensional networks or polymer chains. Polymerization is classified into several systems: addition-condensation system and chain growth system gradually. Other forms of ring-opening polymerization chain polymerization similar to natural. Polymerization polymers include proteins such as silk, enzymes and muscle fibers. polymers are also called macromolecules. For example, the addition of polymers: polyethylene, Teflon, PVC, PVA, and PMMA. Condensation polymers for example: nylon, kevlar, silicon rubber, and polyester.
Polymerization Reactions, Polymer Formation, Addition, Free Radicals, Ion, Condensation, Chemistry.
Polymerization Reactions, Polymer Formation, Addition, Free Radicals, Ion, Condensation, Chemical - Carothers, USA chemists classify polymerization mechanism into two groups, namely the addition polymerization and condensation polymerization. Addition polymerization involves a chain reaction. The cause may be a chain reaction of free radicals or ions. Addition polymerization occurs at a compound having a double bond, such as ethene.
Condensation polymerization reaction of two molecules of more than one function air-force generating large molecules with functional groups are also more than one followed by the elimination of a small molecule.

a. Addition polymerization. 

Addition polymerization occurs in three stages, namely triggering, propagation, and termination. Therefore, the chain carrier can be either ionic or free radical addition polymerization then classified into free radical polymerization and ionic polymerization.

1) Free Radicals. 

Free radicals are usually formed through the decomposition of less stable substance with a certain energy. Free radicals triggers the polymerization. Triggering substances such as peroxide compounds, such as dibenzoyl peroxide and azodiisobutironitril.
Dibenzoyl peroxide
Figure 1. Dibenzoyl peroxide into free radicals easily.
If free radicals represented by R • and monomer molecules expressed by CH2 = CHX triggers the phase can be described as follows.

R • + H2C = CHX → R - CH2 - CHX •

Phase propagation is an extension (elongation) of free radicals formed in stage triggers with other monomers:

R - CH2 - CH2 = CHX CHX • + → R - CH2 - CHX - CH 2 - CHX •

Termination phase may occur in the following way.
Termination phase free radicals or through disproportionation reaction:

Disproportionation reaction of free radicals

The rate of polymerization can be controlled by using inhibitors (inhibitors) and to slow down (retarder). Inhibitor reacts with free radicals when free radicals are formed. Polymerization will not continue until all inhibitors exhausted.
Quinones can act as an inhibitor to the polymerization system causes many quinones react with free radical generating steady radicals due to resonance. This stable free radical polymerization can not lead further.
The substance is commonly used to slow the oxygen gas. This gas is less reactive than the inhibitor. How it works is slowing substances through competition with monomer to react with free radicals so the polymerization rate decreases. The equation is:
decrease in the rate of free radical polymerization

2) Ionic Polymerization. 

Addition polymerization may occur through a mechanism that does not involve free radicals. In this case, the carrier can be either chain carbonium ions (cationic polymerization) or karbanion ion (anion polymerization).
In the cation polymerization, monomer is a chain carrier carbocations. The catalyst for this reaction is a Lewis acid, such as AlCl3, BF3, TiCl4, SnCl4, H2SO4, and other strong acids.
Free radical polymerization requires energy or high temperature, cationic polymerization vice versa is best done at low temperatures.
For example, the polymerization of 2-metilpropena lasted optimum at -100 ° C in the presence of BF3 or AlCl3 catalyst.
Cationic polymerization of monomers that have occurred in the group easily release electrons. In polymerization catalyzed by acid, triggering phase can be described as follows.
Cation ionic polymerization
HA is the acid molecule, such as HCl, H2SO4, and HClO4. In the triggering phase, the proton transferred from the acid to the monomer to produce carbonium ions (C +).
Propagation addition of monomers to form carbonium ions, the process is almost the same as the propagation of free radicals.
monomer addition to carbocations,
Chain termination can occur through a variety of processes. The simplest process is the incorporation of carbonium ions and anions partner (called a counter ion).
carbonium ions and anions merger partner
In anionic polymerization, the monomer is a chain carrier karbanion (C-). In this case, the monomer is a chain carrier that has a cluster with high electronegativity, such propenitril (acrylonitrile), 2-metilpropenoat (methyl methacrylate), and feniletena (styrene).
Cations such as polymerization, anionic polymerization reactions at low temperature optimum. Catalysts that can be used is an alkali metal, alkyl, aryl, and alkali metal amides.
anionic polymerization reaction optimum
Examples are potassium amide (KNH2) that the liquid ammonia solvent can accelerate the polymerization of monomers CH2 = CHX in ammonia. Ionized potassium amide going strong so that triggers can take place as follows.
Propagation is the monomer addition karbanion produced, namely:
monomer addition at karbanion
Termination of the polymerization process of the anion is not so clear as in the cationic polymerization because the incorporation of anion chain with counter ion (K +) does not occur. However, if there is little water, carbon dioxide, or alcohol will terminate chain growth.

b. Condensation Polymerization. 

Condensation polymerization involves the incorporation of small molecules to form larger molecules by condensation reactions. If ethanol and acetic acid is heated with a little concentrated sulfuric acid, ethyl acetate ester will be formed with the removal of water molecules. Esterification reaction will stop, because there is no longer functional group that can form a polymer.
However, if every reactant molecule containing two or more functional groups then the next reaction should be formed. For example, the reaction between two monomers heksanadioat acid (adipic acid) and ethane-1 ,2-diol (ethylene glycol).
Condensation Polymerization
It can be seen that the reaction product still contains two functional groups. Therefore, subsequent reaction with a monomer can occur, both at the tip of the hydroxyl and carboxyl end.
Formed polymer containing repeating units (-OCH2-CH2-OOHCH-(CH2) 4-CO-). Molecular mass gradually increased and the reaction time is very long if the expected molecular mass of the polymer formed very large. Thus, different condensation polymerization with addition polymerization.
At the termination of condensation polymerization does not occur. Polymerization continues until there are no more functional groups that can form a polymer. However, the polymerization reaction can be controlled by changing the temperature. For example, the reaction can be stopped by means refrigerated, but the polymerization can be started again if the temperature is raised.
How to stop a more lasting reaction is to use a tip termination. For example, the addition of a little acetic acid on the growth of polymer reaction. Therefore, a single functional bergugus acetic acid, the acid once it reacts with the growing chain end it will not happen again further reaction. Thus, the ongoing polymerization can be controlled.

Petroleum processing. 

Crude oil contains a variety of hydrocarbon compounds with different physical properties. To obtain material of good quality and in accordance with the requirements necessary to crude oil processing stage that includes the distillation, cracking, reforming, polymerization, treating, and blending.

Distillation. 

Distillation or distillation is a separation method based on a mixture of compounds boiling point differences in the components making up the mixture. Crude oil contains a mixture of hydrocarbons having a boiling point varies from methane (CH4) which has the lowest boiling point to residues that have the highest boiling point so as not vaporised on heating. With this distillation, crude oil is heated at a temperature of 370 ° C, then the resulting vapor is condensed and flows (condensed) at the appropriate temperature. How distillation using some level of cooling or condensing temperature rise is called distillation.
The distillation process takes place as follows. At first, crude oil is heated at a temperature of 370 ° C to boil and evaporate. Fraction of crude oil that does not evaporate into the residue. Petroleum residues include paraffin, wax, and asphalt. These residues have a carbon chain with the number of atoms of more than 20 C atoms. Crude oil is vaporized in the process of this stylized rose to the top of the column and subsequently condensed at different temperatures. Petroleum fractions are not condensed continue to rise to the top of the column so it came out as natural gas.

Cracking. 

Cracking is the decomposition (breakdown) hydrocarbon molecules are large molecules into smaller compounds. An example of this is the conversion of cracking diesel oil or kerosene (kerosene) into gasoline.

There are two ways of cracking process. 

How to heat (thermal cracking): 

Cracking is the process of using high temperature and low pressure.
Way catalyst (catalytic cracking):
Is the cracking process using powdered platinum or molybdenum oxide catalysts.
This breakdown process produces gas in large quantities and better quality. For example, solving the n-decane compounds into ethene and n-octane.

Reforming. 

Reforming of gasoline is changing the form of the molecule is less good quality (straight carbon chain) into a better quality petrol (branched carbon chain). Both types of gas have the same molecular formula but different structural forms that this process is also called isomerization. Reforming is done by using a catalyst and heating.

Polymerization. 

Polymerization is the process of incorporation of small molecules into large molecules. For example, the incorporation of compounds isobutene with isobutane compounds that produce high-quality gasoline, ie isooctane

Treating. 

Treating petroleum refining is the process by removing impurities-impurities. Ways of treating the process as follows.
a) Copper sweetening and treating doctor is the process of eliminating the impurities that cause odor.
b) Acid treatment is the process of sludge removal and color repair.
c) desulfurizing (desulfurization) is the element sulfur removal process.

Blending. 

To obtain a good quality gasoline blending done (mixing), there are approximately 22 mixing ingredients (additives) that can be added to the treatment process. The mixing ingredients, among others tetraethyllead (TEL), MTBE, ethanol, and methanol. These additives can increase the octane.

PETROLEUM PROCESSING. 

Petroleum is usually located 3-4 km below sea level. Petroleum is obtained by making the wellbore. Crude oil obtained is collected in tankers or piped to the station or to a refinery tank.
Crude oil (oil cude) black viscous liquid and smelled dreadful. Crude oil can not be used as fuel or for other purposes, but must be processed first. Crude oil contains about 500 types of hydrocarbons with an atomic number of C-1 through 50. Boiling point of hydrocarbons increased with increasing number of C atoms inside the molecule. Therefore, the processing is done through distillation of petroleum-rise, where crude oil is separated into groups (factions) with similar boiling points.

1. DISTILLATION.

Let me repeat that distillation is the separation of petroleum fractions based on differences in their boiling points. In this case is a distillation fractionation. At first, crude oil is heated in a pipe flow in the furnace (furnace) until the temperature of ± 370 ° C. Crude oil that has been heated is then entered into the fractionation column in the flash chamber (usually located in the lower third fractionation column). To keep the temperature and pressure in the column with steam assisted heating (steam hot water and high pressure).
Crude oil is vaporized in the distillation process of rising to the top of the column and subsequently condensed at different temperatures. Components of the higher boiling point will remain in liquid form and fall to the bottom, while the lower boiling point will evaporate and rise to the top through the lid-lid-called bubble lid. Getting to the top, the temperature of which is contained in the lower fractionating column, so each time the component with higher boiling points will separate, while the component lower boiling point rise to the upper part again. So then that component is a component that reaches peak at room temperature is a gas. Gaseous component is called petroleum gas, then thawed and called LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas).
Fraction of crude oil that does not evaporate into the residue. Petroleum residues include paraffin, wax, and asphalt. These residues have a carbon chain of more than 20.

Petroleum fractions produced by boiling ranges are as follows: 

1. Gas 

Range of carbon chain: C1 to C5
Boiling Route: 0 to 50 ° C

2. Gasoline (Petrol) 

Range of carbon chain: C6 to C11
Boiling Route: 50 to 85 ° C

3. Kerosene (Kerosene) 

Range of carbon chain: C12 to C20
Boiling Route: 85 to 105 ° C

4. Diesel fuel 

Range of carbon chain: C21 to C30
Boiling Route: 105 to 135 ° C

5. Heavy Oil 

Carbon Ranai Range: C31 to C40
Boiling Route: 135 to 300 ° C

6. Residue 

Carbon chain range: above C40
Boiling Route: above 300 ° C
Fractions of petroleum distillation process storied yet have the quality that fits the needs of society, so it needs further processing which includes the process of cracking, reforming, polymerization, first treating, and blending.

2. CRACKING. 

After going through the distillation stage, each of the resulting purified fraction (refinery), as shown below:
Cracking is the decomposition of hydrocarbon molecules into large hydrocarbon molecules are small. An example of this is the treatment cracking diesel oil or kerosene to gasoline.
This process is primarily intended to improve the quality and acquisition gasoline fractions (gasoline). The quality of gasoline is determined by the nature of the anti-knock (knock) are expressed in octane number. Numbers given in isooktan 100 octane (2,2,4-trimethyl pentane) which has a special anti-knocking and octane number 0 is given in n-heptane, which have anti-knock properties are poor. Gasoline that will be tested in comparison with a mixture of isooctane and n-heptane. Octane number is influenced by multiple molecular structure of hydrocarbons.

There are 3 ways cracking process, namely: 

a. How to heat (thermal cracking), 

namely the use of high temperature and low pressure.
Examples of reactions in the cracking process is as follows:

b. Way catalyst (catalytic cracking), 

namely the use of a catalyst. The catalysts used are usually SiO2 or Al2O3 bauxite. The reaction of catalytic cracking via carbonium ion cracking mechanism. At first the catalyst due to acidic protons appends olevin molecules or ions attract hydride from alkanes resulting in the formation of carbonium ions:

c. Hydrocracking 

Hydrocracking is a combination of cracking and hydrogenation to produce unsaturated compounds. The reaction is carried out at high pressure. Another advantage of this is that the hydrocracking of sulfur contained in the oil is converted to hydrogen sulfide which is then separated.

3. Reforming. 

Reforming is a change of molecular shape gasoline quality is not good (straight carbon chain) into a better quality petrol (branched carbon chain). Both types of gasoline has the same molecular formula different structure forms. Therefore, this process is also called isomerization. Reforming is done by using a catalyst and heating.
Reforming examples are as follows:
Reform could also be a change in the molecular structure of paraffinic hydrocarbons into aromatic compounds with high octane number. In this process the molybdenum oxide catalyst used in the reaction Al2O3 clay. Sample or platinum in:

4. Alkylation. 

Alkylation is an increase in the number of atoms in the molecule becomes longer molecules and branched. In the process of using strong acid catalysts such as H2SO4, HCl, AlCl3 (a strong Lewis acid). General reaction is as follows:
RH + CH2 = CR'R'' R-CH2-CHR'R "
Polymerization is the process of incorporation of small molecules into large molecules. General reaction is as follows:
M CnH2n Cm + NH2 (m + n)
An example is the incorporation of compounds polymerization of isobutene with isobutane compounds produce high quality gasoline, ie isooctane.

5. TREATING 

Is treating petroleum refining by removing impurities-impurities. Ways of treating process is as follows:
Copper sweetening and treating physicians, the process removes impurities that can cause bad odor.
Acid treatment, sludge removal process and improve color.
Namely the removal process dewaxing wax (paraffin n) of high molecular weight fraction produces lubricating oil for lubricating oils with low pour point.
Deasphalting namely the elimination of lubricating oil fraction of bitumen used for
Desulfurizing (desulfurization), namely the elimination of elemental sulfur.
Sulfur is a compound that is naturally contained in the oil or gas, but its existence is not cool because it can cause a variety of problems, including corrosion of process equipment, poison the catalyst in the process of processing, less savory smell, or gaseous byproducts of combustion exhaust toxic (sulfur dioxide, SO2) and lead to air pollution and acid rain. Various attempts were made to remove sulfur compounds from petroleum, among others, using the process of oxidation, selective adsorption, extraction, hydrotreating, and others. Sulfur is removed from oil is then taken back as elemental sulfur.
Desulfurization is a process used to remove sulfur compounds from petroleum. Basically there are 2 ways desulfurization, namely by:
1. Using solvent extraction, and
2. Decomposition of sulfur compounds (generally contained in petroleum compounds in the form of mercaptans, sulfide and disulfide) is catalytically selective hydrogenation process to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and hydrocarbon origin of the sulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide is produced from the decomposition of sulfur compounds are then separated by fractionation or washing / stripping.
However, in addition to the above two ways, today there are also other desulfurization techniques, namely bio-desulfurization. Bio-desulfurization is the removal of sulfur from petroleum selective metabolism by utilizing microorganisms, ie by converting hydrogen sulfide into elemental sulfur catalyzed by enzymes of sulfur metabolism of certain types of microorganisms, without changing the flow of hydrocarbons in the process. The reaction is aerobic reactions, and performed in aerated environment. The advantages of this process is that it can be difficult to get rid of the sulfur compounds are removed, for example, alkylated dibenzothiophenes. Type of microorganism used for bio-desulfurization process is generally derived from Rhodococcus sp, but more research is also developed for the use of other types of microorganisms.
This process was developed with the need to get rid of the sulfur content in the medium on the amount of gas flow, which is too little if removed using amine plant, and too much to be removed using a scavenger. In addition to natural gas and hydrocarbons, bio-desulfurization is also used to remove sulfur from coal.
Shell-Paques process for desulfurization of Bio-Gas Flow
One of the licensing process for the desulfurization of bio-gas flow is Shell Paques from Shell Global Solutions International and Paques Bio-Systems. This process has been applied commercially since 1993, and currently there are approximately about 35 units of bio-desulfurization with Shell-Paques license to operate in the entire world.
This process can remove sulfur from the gas stream and produce hydrogen sulfide with capacities ranging from 100 kg / day up to 50 tons / day, using a microorganism Thiobacillus which also acts as a catalyst for bio-desulfurization process. In this process, the gas stream containing hydrogen sulfide is passed to the absorber and is contacted on soda solution containing microorganisms. Mengabsorbi soda compound hydrogen sulfide, and then flowed into a tank of bioreactor THIOPAQ atmospheric aerated where microorganisms convert hydrogen sulfide into elemental sulfur in a state biological pH 8.2 to 9. Sulfur reaction then proceeds through a process of decantation to separate the liquid soda. Soda liquid is returned to the absorber, while sulfur is obtained as a cake or as a pure liquid sulfur. Because it is hydrophilic so easily absorbed by the soil, the sulfur produced from this process can also be used as a fertilizer feedstock.
The advantages of the Shell-Paques process is:
Can get rid of large amounts of sulfur (the removal efficiency of hydrogen sulfide can achieve 99.8%) to leave the content of hydrogen sulfide in the gas flow is very low (less than 4 ppm-volume)
gas purification and retrieval (recovery) integrated sulfur in 1-process flue gas (flash gas / vent gas) from this process contains no harmful gases, so before being released into the environment does not need to be burned in a flare. This makes the process ideal for locations where processes require combustion (eg flare or incinerator) is not possible.
eliminating the potential hazards of handling solvent used to dissolve the hydrogen sulfide in the extraction process
hydrophilic nature of the biological sulfur eliminates the risk of blockage (plugging or blocking) on ​​the pipe
Bio-catalyst used is self-sustaining and able to adapt to the various conditions of the process
Configuration process is simple, reliable and safe (among other operates at low temperature and pressure) so it is easy to operate
Shell-Paques process can be applied to natural gas, amine regenerator flue gas, fuel gas, synthesis gas, and the flow of oxygen-containing waste gases can not be processed with solvents.

6. BLENDING. 

Blending process is the addition of additive materials into petroleum fractions in order to improve the quality of the product. Gasoline which has a range of quality requirements is an example of petroleum products in the most widely used across various countries with different weather variations. To meet the gas quality is good, there are about 22 mixing ingredients that can be added to the treatment process. 
Among the ingredients are well-known mixing tetra ethyl lead (TEL). TEL serves to raise the octane number of gasoline. Similarly, the lubricant, in order to obtain good quality then the processing required the addition of additives. The addition of TEL can increase the octane number, but it can cause air pollution.
Thank you for reading this article. Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno. sunarnobambang86@gmail.com
author:
http://schema.org/Personal.
https://plus.google.com/105319704331231770941.
name: Bambang Sunarno.
http://primadonablog.blogspot.com/2014/03/did-you-know-about-polymerization.html
DatePublished: March 3, 2014 at 20:09
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Tag : Polymerization.

Did You Know About Distillation.

Distillation or distillation is a chemical separation method based on the difference in speed or ease evaporate ( volatility ) material .

In distillation , boiling a mixture of substances that vaporize, and the vapor is then cooled back into a liquid form . Substances which have a lower boiling point will evaporate first .
This method is included as an operating unit of chemical mass transfer types .
The application process is based on the theory that in a solution , each component will evaporate at boiling point . The model is based on the ideal distillation Raoult 's Law and Dalton's Law .

Chart .

Here is a simple circuit arrangement distillation apparatus; 

1 . container of water
2 . distillation flask
3 . connection
4 . thermometer
5 . condenser
6 . inflow of cold water
7 . cold water outflow
8 . distillate flask
9 . airhole
10 . the exit distillate
13 . Turkish bath
14 . water bath
15 . solution of the substance
16 . distillate flask container

History .

Distillation was first discovered by chemists around the first century BC Greek who eventually progress triggered primarily by the high demand for spritus . Hypathia of Alexandria believed to have found a series of tools for distillation and Zosimus of Alexandria was the one who has managed to accurately describe the process of distillation in about the 4th century .
Distillation modern form was first discovered by chemical experts on Islamic Abbasid Caliphate period , especially by Al - Razi on the separation of alcohols into relatively pure compounds through alembik tool , even this design into a kind of inspiration that allows the design of micro-scale distillation , The Hickman Stillhead can be realized . Jabir Ibn Hayyan posts by ( 721-815 ) , better known as Ibn Jabir mentioned the wine vapors that can burn . He also has found a lot of equipment and chemical processes that are still widely used even until now . Then refining the techniques outlined clearly by Al - Kindi ( 801-873 ) .
One of the most important application of the method of distillation is the separation of crude oil into sections for specific use such as for transportation , power generation , heating , etc. . Air is distilled into components such as oxygen for medical use and helium for filling balloons . Distillation also has been used since long for the alcohol concentration by the application of heat to the fermented solution to produce distilled beverages .

Types .

There are 4 types of distillation that will be discussed here , namely simple distillation , fractional distillation , steam distillation , and vacuum distillation . There are also extractive distillation and azeotropic distillation homogenous , using salt berion distillation, pressure-swing distillation and reactive distillation.

Simple distillation .

In simple distillation , the basic separation is much difference in boiling points or with one component is volatile . If the mixture is heated then the component lower boiling point will evaporate first . In addition to differences in boiling point , as well kevolatilan differences , namely the tendency of a substance to be a gas . Distillation is carried out at atmospheric pressure . Application is simple distillation used to separate a mixture of water and alcohol .

Distillation Fraksionisasi .

The function of fractional distillation is to separate liquid components , two or more , of a solution based on differences in their boiling points . This distillation can also be used to mix with the boiling point difference of less than 20 ° C and working at atmospheric pressure or low pressure . Applications of this type are used in the distillation of crude oil industry , to separate the components of crude oil .
Differences fractional distillation and simple distillation is the fractionation column . In this column gradually warming with different temperature on each license plate . Different heating is aimed at refining the distillate over plates underneath. Getting to the top , the less volatile liquid .

Steam Distillation .

Steam distillation is used in a mixture of compounds that have a boiling point reaches 200 ° C or more . Steam distillation can vaporize these compounds with temperatures approaching 100 ° C under atmospheric pressure using steam or boiling water . Fundamental properties of steam distillation to distill a mixture of compounds is below the boiling point of each compound mixtures . Moreover steam distillation can be used to mix water insoluble at all temperatures , but can be distilled with water . Application of steam distillation is to extract some natural products such as eucalyptus oil of eucalyptus , oil of lemon or orange citrus , and for the extraction of perfume oils from plants .
The mixture is heated through water vapor flowed into the mix and possibly also coupled with warming . The steam from the mixture will rise up towards the condenser to the flask , and finally into the distillate .

Vacuum Distillation .

Vacuum distillation is usually used when wishing distilled compound is unstable, with the understanding can be decomposed before or near the boiling point or a mixture having a boiling point above 150 ° C. This distillation method can not be used in a solvent with a low boiling point if the condenser using cold water , because the components can not be condensed to evaporate the water .
To reduce the pressure of the vacuum pump or aspirator used .
Aspirator serves as lowering the pressure in the distillation system .

Azeotrope .

Azeotrope is a mixture of two or more components that have a constant boiling point . Azeotrope can be a disorder that causes the distillation be not optimal . The composition of the azeotrope remain constant or increase pressure in the delivery . However, when the total pressure change , both boiling point and composition of the azeotrope changes . As a result, the azeotrope is not a fixed component , the composition must always be a constant in the interval of temperature and pressure, but more to the mixture resulting from the interplay of intramolecular strength in solution .
Azeotrope can be distilled by using additional solvents , for example benzene or toluene addition of water to separate . Water and solvent will be caught by the catcher Dean - Stark . Water will remain in the base and the catcher will return to the solvent mixture and separating the water again . Azeotropic mixture is a deviation from Raoult's law .

Distillation effectiveness .

In theory , the distillation can reach 100 % by reducing the pressure to 1/10 atmospheric pressure . Can also be using the azeotropic distillation using an organic solvent and the addition of two additional distillation , and the use of the use of cornmeal that can absorb water either in liquid or vapor form in the last column . However , in practice there is no distillation which reached 100 % .

Distillation Scale Industries .

Generally industrial -scale distillation process is done in the tower , therefore the process of distillation unit is often referred to as a distillation tower ( MD ) . Distillation tower typically measuring 2-5 meters in diameter and height ranging between 6-15 meters. Input from the distillation tower is usually a saturated liquid, the liquid is slightly reduced pressure alone will form a vapor and has two output currents , currents flow above is more volatile ( easily evaporated ) and the undercurrent consisting of heavy components .

Distillation tower is divided into two major categories ;

Distillation towers Stagewise type .

The tower is composed of many disk that allows equilibrium divided in each dial.

Continuous distillation tower type .

Which consists of packaging and liquid-gas equilibrium occurs along the column of the tower.
Thank you for reading this article. Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno. sunarnobambang86@gmail.com
author:
http://schema.org/Personal.
https://plus.google.com/105319704331231770941.
name: Bambang Sunarno.
http://primadonablog.blogspot.com/2014/03/did-you-know-about-distillation.html
DatePublished: March 3, 2014 at 18:09

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Tag : Distillation.

The language most used.

LANGUAGE can be said is one of the most beautiful grace given by God to man. Imagine if in this world there is no language or there is only one language only, is it possible the scientists could create important discoveries? Then, there is the actual number of languages ​​in the world? According to Ethnologue, there are currently about 6,912 languages ​​spoken throughout the world. The number is of course still doubt its accuracy because every day there is a new language that might appear, on the contrary there are also language extinction.
We as people should be a little proud that Indonesia Indonesian turns in the top 10 languages ​​that have the highest number of speakers in the world. The languages ​​most widely used in the world are as follows;

Mandarin. 

No doubt, Chinese is the most widely spoken language of people around the world. The population in China / China is currently estimated to reach nearly 1.4 billion million. Of these, all are required to speak the official word in one language is Mandarin. Not to mention, the Chinese immigrants in various parts of the world who faithfully use Mandarin as their daily language.

The origins of the Chinese word.

Indonesian mandarin word in itself seems to be absorbed from the English language that describes the Chinese as well as Chinese. But in fact, the Chinese word of the English language absorbed Chinese themselves. Mandarin is literally derived from the title stranger to the princes of the Qing Dynasty in ancient times.
Qing dynasty is a dynasty founded by the Manchu, so the princes of the empire commonly referred to as Mandaren (Hanzi: 满 大人) which means Majesty Manchu. From here, the language used by the Manchu officials at that time also referred to as Mandaren. Writing evolved into Mandarin in the future.
* Number of speakers: 1.5 billion people.
* Type characters: Chinese Character
* Country of speakers: China and other Chinese communities around the world. The official languages ​​of the UN.
* To say hello in Mandarin, say "Ni hao" (Nee HaOW)

English. 

English is the most widely adopted as the official language in several countries and international organizations. Noted there are 53 countries and 10 international organizations who use English as an official language. In addition, almost all countries in the world apply for English as a second language after their own national language.
* Number of speakers: 500 million people.
* Type characters: Latin.
* State of speakers: United Kingdom, the U.S., South Africa, Antigua & Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Brunei, Dominica, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Fiji, Philippines, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Jamaica, Cameroon, Canada, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Maldives, Malta, Marshall Islands, Maritius, Micronesia, Namibia, Nauru, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Saint Kitts & Nevs, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and Grenada, Samoa, New Zealand, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Swaziland, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad & Tobago, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Zambia, Zimbabwe . International Organizations: United Nations, European Union, Commonwealth, CoE, NATO, NAFTA, OAS, OIC, PIF, ukusa, etc..
* To say hello in English, say: F ​​*** U.

Hindi. 

India is the second most populous country in the world , Bollywood movies , the Taj Mahal , the Great King Ashoka , Mahatma Gandhi , was India does not have an official national language .
* Number of speakers: approximately 497 million.
* Type characters: Devanagari
* State of speakers: India, USA (100,000 inhabitants), Mauritius (685 170 inhabitants), South Africa (890,292), Yemen (232,760 inhabitants), Uganda (147,000 inhabitants), Singapore (5,000 inhabitants), New Zealand (20,000 inhabitants), Germany (30,000 inhabitants), Fiji, Nepal, Suriname, Trinidad & Tobago, Guyana and the United Arab Emirates.
* To say hello in Hindi, saying "Namaste" (Nah-MAH-stay).

Spanish language. 

After Portugal mastered maritime lines in Asia, Africa and America in the 15th century, Spain turns that dominate these areas since the 16th century and 17. As a result, many Spanish culture strong stuck there. Currently, Spanish is widely used as an official language of the countries in Central and South America. In addition, the Spanish language is also widely spoken in several U.S. states bordering Mexico. Even some English vocabulary is borrowed from Spanish like a tornado, bonanza, patio, quesadilla, enchilada, and taco grande supreme, etc..
* Number of speakers: 400 million
* Type characters: Latin
* State of speakers: Spain, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Guatemala, Honduras, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, Venezuela
* To say hello in Spanish, say "Hola".

Arabic language. 

Arabic is one of the oldest languages ​​in the world and is the language used in the Qur'an. Arabic vocabulary lend much to a number of main European languages ​​Spanish, Portuguese and Sicilian. Arabic, like Hebrew and Persian writing system uses characters from right to left. Since 1974, the Arabic language is used as one of the official languages ​​of the UN.
* Number of speakers: 300 million people
* Type characters: Arabic
* State of speakers: Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Bahrain, Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Niger, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia , United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, Yemen, Mauritania, Senegal, Mali. The official language of the United Nations
* To say hello in Arabic, say; Assalammualaikum Wr Wb.

Russian language. 

Mikhail Gorbachev, Vladimir Putin, Roman Abramovich, Anna Kournikova, Maria Sharapova and the beautiful Russian language speakers is that we already know through various media. However, in addition to their course, there's 270 million people who use Russian as an official language.
* Number of speakers: approximately 278 million people
* Type alphabet: Cyrillic
* State of speakers: Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova. The official language of the United Nations
* To say hello in Russian, saying: "Zdravstvuite" (ZDRAST-vet-yah).

Malay (including Indonesian). 

Indonesian included in the Malay language family turns out to be on the order of 7 to number around 259 million speakers. These rough calculations obtained from the estimated total population of Indonesia in 2009 to reach 230 million plus population of Malaysia's 28 million, 388 thousand and the population of Brunei minority of the population of Thailand, Singapore and East Timor. This amount may increase due Indonesian since 2007 has been designated as the second official language in Vietnam.

Portuguese. 

Portugal is only a small country and it can be said that one of the poorer countries in Europe. But in the 15th century, Portugal is a great nation because they were the first to perform maritime exploration around the world. Thanks to explorers such as Vasco da Gama, Henry the Navigator, Afonso de Albuquerque and Pedro Alvares Cabral, Portugal control of key areas in Asia, Africa and South America, and then embed the influence of culture there.
* Number of speakers: 240 million
* Type Script: Latin
* State Speakers: Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Cape Verde, East Timor, Guinea-Bissau, Macau, Mozambique, São Tomé e Príncipe.
* To say hello in Portuguese, say "Bom dia" (Bohn DEE-ah).

Bengali. 

Bangladesh is a country with a small geographical area, but the population reached 162 million people. The official language of Bangladesh is Bengali. Because of Bangladesh is almost entirely bordered by India, the number of Bengali speakers spread to several regions of India.
* Number of speakers: Approximately 230 million
* Type Script: Bengali
* State Speakers: Bangladesh, India
* To say hello in Bengali, say "Ei Je" (EYE-jay).

French. 

Language is often cited as the most romantic language in the world than is used in France is also the official language in several states that once colonized. French is also one of the official languages ​​of the United Nations (UN) in addition to English, Mandarin, Russian, Spanish and Arabic.
* Number of speakers: 200 million
* Type Script: Latin
* Native Country: France, Monaco, Canada, Switzerland, Belgium, Luxemburg, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo / Zaire, Ivory Coast, Djibouti, Guinea, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guernsey, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritius, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Seychelles, Togo, Haiti, Lebanon, New Caledonia, Vanuatu. Polynesia, Martinique, Guadalupe. The official languages ​​of the UN.
* To say hello in French, say: "Bonjour" (bone-JOOR).
Thank you for reading this article. Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno. sunarnobambang86@gmail.com
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DatePublished: March 3, 2014 at 16:38
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The strongest magic.

The strongest magic.

GYPSY.

The Gypsy is a wanderer , a mysterious race , scattered throughout Europe and parts of Asia , Africa , and America . Gypsy tribes are actually people who do not have a permanent home , or so-called nomadic . But if we embarrass them , so they do not hesitate to get the word smell of death to us .

magic :

Lamia is probably the worst magic that used the Gypsy. This magic is usually used for punishment. The way it works is by taking something that belongs to us , whether buttons, pens , etc. , and cast a spell to the object. Lamia va lua sufletele lor,? I le was IN loculs? U IN IN cazul care nu va fi sufletele din nou reîncarnare ( Lamia took his life after a few days, and took him to endless torment ). One thing to remember , do not be fooled by their finery.

INDIAN.

The Indians were a tribe , a nation , or a group or community of indigenous peoples in the Americas .

magic :

Inland communities most evil magic is America Na Munda . This is different from existing voodoo in Haiti . Indians usually do this by calling the magic spirits using the medium of their bodies with chants or mantras and special dances . This magic will cause death without a trace. Lately magic is also used to heal and forecasting.

BULGARIAN MYSTERY .

Bulgarian Mystery is a collection of people from Bulgaria who has a high level of long-distance magic . This magic is used to scramble the area at the time of the division of regions in Eastern Europe .

magic :

The most terrible magic Bulgarian people are singing . Malka Moma high notes sung by a magic that is unique and different from other tribes . But , now the magic is not there anymore . It is now used as a cultural community in the Bulgarian singing . http://anehdidunia.blogspot.com

KIYUKU .

Kiyuku is the name of a tribe in Africa , is a fraction of the Murci and Dassanech . Kiyuku looking for a way to move out of Africa region to Ethiopia .

magic :

Magic is Kiyuku Dancer owned or dance Kiyuku . The local community itself has not mengetahiu clearly what is meant by the dance. Some say lowering rain , Witchcraft , there are even some who say these people can turn a desert into snow

MAYA .

Maya is a collection of extraordinary people who were in the jungle Mexico and Guatemala . It is the most modern parts of the era because it can calculate the star calendar , and a mathematician .

magic :

Do not think that only the Maya tribe have numeracy course , Toltec is the name or nickname of the oldest Maya , or could be called a wise man . They have the ability to summon rain , strength in the war , and led to the sun god to perform a human heart from their tribe or an enemy . This tribe who fought the Indians .

Maasai .

Maasai is a tribe that originated from Kenya . Arrogant , Fearless , and Free , is a nickname that suits them . For 100 years , the Maasai do not take or glued to the rule , peace in war , money for life , and so on .

magic :

Magic they tend to pray , they have a god named Enkai . No wonder why the Maasai tribe called " Warriors " . It is said that with the help of Enkai , they can run as fast as a lion and also become immune .
Thank you for reading this article. Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno. sunarnobambang86@gmail.com
author:
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name: Bambang Sunarno.
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DatePublished: March 3, 2014 at 14:35

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Inscriptions found Yupa.

Kutai tribe or Urang Kutai Kutai or Dayak are indigenous tribes who inhabited the East Kalimantan region of the current majority is Muslim and live by the river. Kutai tribe is part of the Dayak clump, clump, especially Dayak Ot Danum (oral traditions of several parents who said the Kutai tribe Dayak Lawangan which then settles in East Kalimantan Dayak Alas childbirth and Benuaq tribe, then with the entry of Malay and Muslim culture gave birth to the formation of Kutai tribe communities with different cultures of the Dayak). At first mammal is the name of an indigenous territory dwelling place or Dayak Borneo. Kutai tribes by type is included as parts of old Malay Dayak in East Kalimantan. Therefore, it is physically similar to the Kutai tribe Dayak Ot Danum clumps. Kinship relations with the Dayak tribe Kutai also told in the oral tradition of the Dayak with various versions in several clumps Ot Danum (for each - each clump has a history of its own). Old customs mammal parts in common with customs clumps Dayak Ot Danum (especially Alas-Benuaq) for example; Erau (most festive traditional ceremony), purchases (ceremonial dances cure disease), indeed, and spells as well as science occult such as virtual machetes, arrows eggplant, peas, poison gangsa, perakut, peloros, and others. Where the customs are owned by Kutai and Dayak tribe. Even today there are still Kedang tribe in the village of Ipil Kutai, Kutai Kaharingan beliefs are the same as Dayak.

Etymology. 

At first mammal is not a tribal name, but the name of the place / area and the name of the kingdom where the discovery of inscriptions Yupa by Dutch researchers. The entire indigenous people of Borneo was actually a clump, Between Ngaju, Maanyan, Iban, Kenyah, Kayatn, Kutai (Lawangan - Tonyoi - Benuaq), Banjar (Ngaju, Iban, Maanyan, etc.), Tidung, Paser, and others. Only Rulers and Religious Issues Political become a big gap between this family. Those who abandon their traditional beliefs long finally left because it receives a new confidence and evolved into the Young Malay Society. Particularly in Islamic or Christian, it - it is contrary to the customary doctrine would be abandoned. While that remains steadfast to the old belief called the Dayaks.

Kutai be the name of the tribe as a result of the current ruling political interests that unite the archipelago is ambitious successor Maharaja Kertanegara Singasari from Java with the purpose to resist the expansion of the power of Kublai Khan of the Mongol dynasty. While it was during the reign of the indigenous people of Borneo Kertanegara most commonly referred to as the Dayak eventually transformed into the current dwelling mammal communities in the region of the Kingdom Kertanegara Powers and Authorities are required to comply with regulations. Who refused and finally have a chance to escape into the interior and remains a Dayak. Another version states that the term Dayak is also not a name used to be because the term Dayak tribe is the name used by the Dutch administration of the colonial Dutch to insult people.
According to other information, the name originated from the name of the Kingdom of Kutai Kutai Martadipura in Muara Kaman, is actually the name of the kingdom was originally called Queitaire (mammal) by Newcomer century BC and the early traders who came from southern India which means Wilds and his Kingdom Capital named Maradavure (Martapura) are Naladwipa Island (the term in the book Java Kalimantan) and located on the banks of the Mahakam River Intersection Right across the Mahakam River Homecoming Overseas Kedang origin of the name City of Muara Kaman now. In the news Champa or China called Kho-thay means Large or airport Kingdom of Great. There is another opinion, from the standpoint of the Java community, that the Palapa Oath of Gajah Mada of Majapahit had mentioned in Kuta Alas, there are also saying that writing is a true mammal Alas, but this during the mammal kingdom.
According to legend the King of the Kingdom Sendawar Tulur Aji ford with the empress Mok Manor Bulatn and they memupnyai 5 children: Sualas Gunaaqn (Being Descendants Dayak Alas), Jelivan Benaaq (Being Descendants Dayak Bahau), Nara Gunaa (Being Descendants Benuaq), Tantan Cunaaq (Being Descendants Dayak Kenyah) and Puncan Karnaaq (Being Descendants Dayak Kutai).
The oral tradition in every family Kutai people who say that their ancestors came from the land of China, similar to the oral tradition of the Dayak Kenyah. So it was thought that this mammal is a union of many clumps Dayak community in order to find a new identity.
From the above it is known that exposure Kutai at that time is the name of the kingdom / city / region where the discovery of the inscription is not the name of the tribe (ethnic) and kinship Kutai and Dayak tribe is very strong. It's just the influence of the Islamic religion and acculturation immigrants who spread Islam (Sumatra, China, Banjar, Java) as well as the war between the kingdoms (Majapahit dynasty of aquatic win the war against the kingdom of Kutai Martadipura) at the time resulted in Kutai tribe culture to be somewhat different from the Tribe Dayak today. Hence the original Kutai tribe Dayak will refer to as Densanak Tuha which means Big Brother because it is still one ancestor.

Language. 

Kutai community consisting of many sub-tribes have diverse languages. Some languages ​​sub-tribe that is not used anymore and is probably already extinct language Umaa Wak, Umaa Palaa, Umaa Luhaat, Umaa Palog, and Umaa Baang Kelo Sam. These languages ​​were once commonly used by the public Kutai in upstream and downstream Mahakam.

Currently Kutai language is divided into four dialects which are not located adjacent to each other:
Kutai Tenggarong.
Kutai City Build.
Kutai Ancalong Estuary.
Kutai Sengata / Sengata.
Besides having some similarities with language vocabulary Banjar, Kutai language also has similarities with the vocabulary Dayak Iban language, for example;
nade (Language Kutai Build City); Nadai (Language Kantu '), meaning that no
celap (Bahsa Kutai Tenggarong; celap (Language Dayak Iban, Dayak language Alas), jelap (Benuaq language) means cold
balu (Language Kutai Tenggarong), widow (Dayak Iban language, balu 'Benuaq language), meaning widow
hek (Tenggarong Kutai language), he '(Alas Dayak language), meaning that no

Origins. 

According to the oral traditions of the tribe Kutai, Process migration from mainland Asia what is now Yunnan province - China's south took place between the years 3000-1500 BC. They consist of a group that wandered up to the island of Borneo with the route passing Hainan, Taiwan, the Philippines and then across the South China Sea to the East Kalimantan. At that time the movement of people from one island to another island because they are not so hard on the ice age sea level was very down due to freezing ice in the North and South poles, so a small boat bercadik given wings of bamboo rods they easily cross the strait Karimata and South China Sea to the East Kalimantan. The immigrants from mainland China's entry into East at different times, the first group to come around 3000-1500 BCE included in Negrid racial groups and this group is expected to leave Weddid Borneo and some extinct. Then around the year 500 BC lasted longer outflow larger population and this group is expected to be the forerunner of mammal populations. After an outflow of population from Yunnan population mixing occurred because they marriage.
Kutai population at that time was divided into five families (five parts);
Fathers Pantun
Fathers Punang
Fathers Pahu
Fathers Sendawar
Melani fathers

Poem fathers. 

Poem fathers are the oldest tribe in East Kalimantan, and a tribe or most Old Puak between 5 Puak Tribe or other mammal, they are a tribe who founded the kingdom in the archipelago is the oldest kingdom in Muara Kaman Kutai Martadipura in the 4th century AD. This tribe inhabited the district of Muara Kaman. Aquatic mammal and to Regional and Local Wahau Ancalong Muara, Muara Bengkal and Regions, Regional Kombeng in the region of East Kab.Kutai now, Kutai tribes poem can be regarded as a derivative of the nobles and Authorities in Kutai kingdom Martapura (Kutai Mulawarman). First king known as Kudungga, and the glorious kingdom during the third dynasty during the time of King Mulawarwan. Under the leadership of Maharaja Mulawarman, social and civic life is believed to be developing well. Government centered on the palace which is in Martapura his realm stretched from the Highlands Alas (Kingdom Pinang Sendawar), Kingdom of Sri Build in Build City, United Pantun in Wahau, United Tebalai, to the coast of East Kalimantan, such as China's River, Upper Hamlet and territories other. With the conquest of the kingdom of the empire small, steady state conditions can be run so that the atmosphere of peace during his reign. This tribe inhabited the district of Muara Kaman. Aquatic mammal and to Regional and Local Wahau Ancalong Muara, Muara Bengkal and Regions, Regional Kombeng in the region of East Kab.Kutai now.

Punang fathers. 

Fathers Punang (Puak Kedang) is a tribe who inhabit the interior. It is estimated that this rate is the result of mixing between fathers and fathers poem Sendawar (lotus-Benuaq). Therefore, Kutai tribe dialect Kedang steady tone wavy. Indonesian misalya "No", Kutai language "Endik", Kutai language Kedang "Inde" ...firm pedestal wave. The tribe established a kingdom in Sri City Build Build (or known as the State thigh during the reign of Kutai Matadipura).
This punang families scattered Build City region, Muara Muntai, Semayang Lake, River and surrounding Belayan.
In the government of the Kingdom of Kutai Martapura, 350-1605, which had its capital in Muara Kaman, Build the city area is known that the region covers an area named STATE THIGH: KEHAM, Kedang IN, Kedang ociety, FORMER LEBAK, LEBAK CILONG.
This country is headed by a Provincial level Mangkubumi (Duke Region), this tribe called tribe Kutai Kedang (Older Indigenous People) while the boss berigelar Sri King (Little King) and the last king named Sri Sri Raja Raja TALIKAT is relative in Muara Kaman, and ruled in Keham capital hitherto Older Indigenous people still inhabit the area above.

Pahu fathers. 

Pahu tribe is a tribe that inhabited the region Pahu extension. This tribe is scattered across the estuary and surrounding Pahu.

Sendawar fathers. 

Sendawar tribe is a tribe that inhabited the region Sendawar (Kutai Barat), the tribe established a kingdom in West Kutai Sendawar with the famous King Aji Tulut Jejangkat name. This tribe inhabits rural areas. They split up leaving the original soil and form each ethnic group now known as Dayak Alas, Bahau, Benuaq, Modang, Penihing, Busang, Bukat, Ohong and Bentian.
Alas tribes inhabit the districts Melak, Barong and Muara Pahu Tongkok
Bahau tribes inhabit the districts of Long Iram and Long Bagun
Benuaq inhabit the districts Jempang, Muaralawa, Peace and Muara Pahu
Modang tribes inhabit the estuary Ancalong and Muara districts Wahau
Penihing tribes, tribes and tribal Ohong Bukat inhabit the districts of Long Apari
Busang tribes inhabit the districts of Long Pahangai
Benuaq tribes inhabit the districts and the Great Benuaq Muaralawa
In addition to these tribes, there are also other tribes that Dayak Kenyah, Punan, Basap, and Kayan.

Kenyah. 

Are migrants from Apo Kayan, Kab. Bulungan. Now these tribes inhabit the districts Ancalong Muara, Muara Wahau, Tabang, Long Bagun, Pahangai Long, Long Iram and Samarinda Ilir.

Punan. 

Dayak is a wilderness inhabited throughout East Kalimantan from Bulungan area, Kutai Berau up. They live in small groups in caves and trees. They were nurtured by the Ministry of Social Affairs through its Correctional Isolated tribe.

Basap tribes. 

According to the story are the descendants of the Chinese people who mate with the Punan. They inhabit the districts Sangkulirang.

Kayan tribe. 

Originating from Central Kalimantan, these parts are often also referred to the tribe Biaju. They inhabit the districts of Long Iram.

Melani fathers. 

Melani fathers are people who inhabit coastal areas. They are among the youngest fathers fathers fathers-Kutai, in this society there has been a mixture of original Kutai ie Dayak tribe, the tribe of the newcomers; Banjar, Javanese and Malay. Puak so it's been developed into ethnic unity. These families thrive in the Kutai kingdom, the kingdom of Java that stand in the Land of Kutai. King first named Aji Batara Agung Dewa Sakti. These families generally inhabit coastal areas such as Kutai Lama and Tenggarong.
In the development of families rhymes, punang, Pahu and melani then developed into Kutai tribes that have similar language but different dialects. While most fathers Sendawar (tulur jejangkat fathers) are not assimilated by the newcomers end up living in the interior, by Dutch researchers called the Dayaks.

Land mammal kingdom. 

Land mammal known to stand in the Kingdom of Big 3, namely: 

Martadipura kingdom (Shades of Hindu-Malay Kaharingan-old (at the time Borneo Dayak population, later formed clumps of young Malays Dayaks)
Kingdom of Sri Build (Corak Buddhist Srivijaya Malay and Malay-Old)
Kingdom of mammal (Islamic Pattern - Assimilation of Java and Dayak (Effect of conquest))

Rupture Story Land Puak Kutai. 

Here is the division of the two groups or indigenous groups in land mammal, the Dayak and Kutai Tribe (haloq). Haloq is the designation for the Dayak tribe or tribal land mammal that came out of customs / cultural / ancestral beliefs (Indigenous, cultural, and ancestral beliefs are still visible on the characteristic of the current Dayak). Those who behaloq (Leaving customs) are more receptive and willing to mingle with newcomers consequently society is more often found in coastal areas. The term began to arise when haloq tribes of fathers-fathers kutai above began many old beliefs left one is to adhere to the teachings of Islam, because the customs, culture, and beliefs of the indigenous land mammal many contradictory in Islam. Then because fathers poem, punang, and melani largely abandoned their old customs or beliefs, then they started called 'the haloq' by other families who are still sticking with his old confidence (confidence ancestors). And families that still survive with customs / beliefs duration Sendawar mostly fathers (fathers tulur jejangkat), although there is also a small portion of the tribal families who left the old custom Sendawar (Behaloq). Since then the haloq and the person who is not a separate haloq life, because it has different customs. Gradually this haloq person calls himself 'the Kutai' which means the people in the continent or the people of the region Kutai Kutai kingdom. Since it was kutai slowly began to become tribal name, which is derived from the tribe Kutai tribe rhymes, punang, Pahu and melani and fathers Sendawar fraction. Now many tribe Kutai mixed with other ethnicities. Seen from the culture that is the result of acculturation of some other ethnic cultures. Especially aquatic mammal from Java and native soil mixed with tribal Kutai (currently called Dayak) is.
Sendawar fathers are mostly still survive with customs / beliefs much later split to form tribal groups and alienated. They are now the tribe Alas, Benuaq, Penihing, Oeheng, Benuaq, Bahau, Modang and others. They are called the Dayak tribe in the present. Dayak is a term popularized by the Dutch and foreign researchers, where they refer to the tribe - indigenous tribes that inhabit the interior of Borneo. Thus the term Dayak itself is not derived from the ancestral Borneo itself. Therefore, there are still some of the Dayak Dayak reluctantly called. They prefer called a clump, like Alas, Benuaq, and others - others.
So-called Kutai tribe today is the tribe of the families rhymes, punang, Pahu and easy melani acculturated with newcomers and slowly left the customary length. While the Dayak tribe is of Sendawar who remain steadfast in the belief ancestors. Thus the Kutai tribe is not a young Malay tribe but was an old Malay tribes, just as Dayak. Grouping parts into the Kutai young Malay race just based on the Socio-religious or cultural, not by type (old Malay).

Problems of classification Dayak or Malay. 

Kutai tribe changes drastically after converting to Islam, almost removing traces its origin is Lawangan tribe. Malay culture is considered to be more "civilized", helping to eliminate the culture of the Dayak tribe Kutai quickly. The term "haloq" inherent in Kutai Tribe which means "abandon old customs" is used as a pride for that be "halooq". But for Alas-Benuaq term it as a stigma because it does not respect the heritage. So Kutai lose track Kaharingan / Lawangan, although there remains a small part. As a result people are more confident Kutai Malay, but not so. Of course everything in the old customs are considered Shirk (against religion) so it must be destroyed and abandoned.
The difficulty of the data more difficult for investigators to trace the origin of Kutai tribe. Making research results look even vaguely ambiguous. Researchers often classify based on language, whereas according to the Kutai and Alas-Benuaq know that classifies oral tradition based on cultural groups and cultural history as well as genealogy. Therefore Kutai tribe Dayak classified into Malay culture.

Ala Body Art Dayak tattooing. 

The word tattoo comes from the Tahitian word / Tatu, who have the meanings: signifies something. Tattoo or tattoos in English is called Tattoo, is a mark made by inserting pigment into the skin. In technical terms, rajah is micro-pigment implantation. Rajah can be made on human or animal skin. Rajah in humans is a form of body modification, temporary tattoo of animals commonly used as identification. Rajah is a practice that is found almost everywhere with the function in accordance with local custom. Rajah formerly often used by the isolated tribes in a region of the world as the tagging region, degree, rank, even signify a person's health. Rajah is widely used by the Polynesians, the Philippines, Borneo, Africa, North America, South America, Mesoamerica, Europe, Japan, Cambodia, and China. Although in some circles is considered taboo tattoo, tattoo art remains a popular thing in the world. Do not be surprised when it comes to the interior of Borneo see the local community body skin tattoo tattoos were encountered, although in women. The art of making tattoos tattoo or activities that have been handed down by the Dayak of Kalimantan. Tattoos for the Dayak community is not just decoration, but it has a very deep meaning. Because tattoos for the Dayak community should not be disposed of at will because he is part of a tradition, a person's social status in society, as well as the appreciation of the ability of one's tribe. Dayak people believe this is the art of body tattooing as stock lights in one trip to the nature of eternity, after death. Tattoos terajah in a person's body can describe who he is in fact, such a tattoo around the fingers indicates the person who likes to help the tribe as healers or a healer and a growing number of tattoos on his hands, indicating that more and more people help and expert in the science of medicine. For the people of Kenya and Dayak Kayan Dayaks in East Kalimantan, many people describe the tattoo is already strong wandering. Different with the nobility who wear tattoos, motif common to the nobility is the hornbill bird endemic to Borneo sacred. The art of tattooing is usually done by using two sticks, one of which eyed needle is dipped into a special ink (first still using dyes from plants), and in tapping while the needle is run according to what image will be generated later. The art of body tattooing is unique is inviting interested parties who loves art, among others, Anthony Kiedis famous vocalist of Red Hot Chili Pappers. In the 1990s he accidentally flew specially to Borneo to tattoo his body, precisely Tapping into the village, where the Dayak Iban longhouse, in Betong border Keriung National Park, West Kalimantan and Sarawak border in order to get a tattoo with tribal motifs ala Dayak traditional treatment.
Thank you for reading this article. Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno. sunarnobambang86@gmail.com
author:
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name: Bambang Sunarno.
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DatePublished: March 3, 2014 at 13:03

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Did You Know About Africa.

Africa is the continent's second-largest and second most-populated world after Asia. With an area of ​​30,224,050 km ² including adjacent islands, Africa covers 20.3% of the total land surface. With 800 million people in 54 countries, the continent is home to one seventh of the world population.

History. 

The word comes from the Latin Africa, Africa terra - "land of Afri" (plural of "Afer") - to indicate the northern part of the continent, is now a part of Tunisia, the seat of the Roman province of Africa. Afer possible origin of the word Phoenician, 'afar means dust, or from the Afridi tribe, who inhabited the northern part of the continent near Carthage; aphrike or from the Greek meaning without cold, or from the Latin word meaning bright Aprica.
Africa is home to the earliest humans, the humans of the continent and then spread to other continents. Africa is a place where the line of evolution from ape to different protohuman seven million years ago. Africa is the only continent that is inhabited by human ancestors until about two million years ago when Homo erectus evolved out of Africa to Europe and Asia. More than 1.5 million years later, the population of the three continents that follow different evolution so that they become different species. Neanderthals were in Europe becomes, the remains of Homo erectus in Asia, but in Africa evolved into Homo sapiens.

Geography. 

Africa is the largest of the three continents in the Southern Hemisphere and the second largest after Asia from all continents. The extent of approximately 30,244,050 km2 (11,677,240 mil2) including the surrounding islands, covering 20.3% of the total land area of ​​the earth and inhabited more than 800 million people, or about one-seventh of the human population on earth.
Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, Africa fused with Asia at the eastern end of the sea through the Suez Canal which has a width of 130 km. The Sinai Peninsula is owned by Egyptians often considered geopolitically as part of Africa. From the northernmost tip, Cape Spartel in Morocco, in 37 ° 21 'north latitude, to the southernmost tip, Cape Agulhas in South Africa, 34 ° 51'15 "South latitude, stretching a distance of about 8000 km, from the westernmost tip of Cape Verde, 17 ° 33'22 "West longitude, to the most eastern tip, Ras Hafun in Somalia, 51 ° 27'52" East longitude, located about 7,400 km. The length of coastline is 26,000 km (for comparison, Europe, which has an area of ​​9.7 million km ² has a coastline of 32,000 km.

The Nile. 

The Nile is a river that flows in the north in the northeast of Africa , Its length is about 6,650 km ( 4,132 miles) .
The Nile is the " international river " because the water source is divided by eleven countries namely , Tanzania , Uganda , Rwanda , Burundi , Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt.
In particular , the Nile River provides the primary water resources and thus become the artery of life for downstream countries such as Egypt and Sudan .

The Nile has two major rivers , the White Nile and the Blue Nile . White Nile is longer and rise in the Great Lakes region of Central Africa , with the most distant source still undetermined but located in Rwanda or Burundi . The river flows north through Tanzania , Lake Victoria , Uganda and South Sudan .
Blue Nile is the source of most of the water and fertile soil . It starts at Lake Tana in Ethiopia at and flows into Sudan from the southeast . The two rivers meet near the Sudanese capital of Khartoum .
The Nile ends in a large delta that empties into the Mediterranean Sea .

Sahara. 

Sahara is the largest desert in the world, covering a wide swath of land across northern Africa. The desert stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. Sahara covers ¼ of the entire continent. Most of the Saharan heat, dry, and empty. Since ancient times, people use camels to carry goods across the vast desert.

Thousands of Ethiopian seen'm looking for a pile of salt on the sidelines of the rocks, in the middle of the Sahara Desert sun, Africa. Search activity has been going on since the salt is hundreds of years ago as a family economic income.

Kilimanjaro. 

Africa's highest mountains are found in the eastern row of towering. Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in Africa, located in east central Africa. Kilimanjaro is the active volcano which has a height of 19,341 feet (5,895 meters).
How much does it cost to climb Kilimanjaro? Around $1000 USD.

Countries. 

Most African countries are former colonies, except South Africa, Ethiopia and Liberia. Democratic Republic of Congo is a former Belgian colony. Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, Djibouti, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana ex-colonial Britain. Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Mali, Senegal, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo and the former French colony of Madagascar. Togo, Cameroon, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania and Namibia former German colony. Libya, Eritrea, Somalia, a former Italian colony. Guinea Bissau, Angola, Malawi, and Mozambique is a former Portuguese colony. As well as the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony. Third ie 15 of 47 landlocked countries.

AIDS. 

Two-thirds (26 million out of 40 million) of the world's people with HIV / AIDS live in sub-Saharan Africa. One in five people in Botswana and Swaziland are infected with AIDS. Botswana is a country with an average rate of AIDS infection in the world's highest at 22%. Namibia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland had an average infection rate of 10%. The percentage of people aged 15-49 years worldwide HIV positive is 1.1%, in sub-Saharan Africa 8%. The number of people in sub-Saharan Africa are infected with HIV every day 8,500 souls while the number who die from AIDS every day 6,300 souls. The number of children under 18 who have been orphaned by AIDS worldwide (from 2003) 15 million, in sub-Saharan Africa 12.3 million. The number of South Africans who are HIV positive 5.3 million, more than any other country in the world. The percentage of pregnant women in South Africa are HIV positive in 2004 27.9%.

Economy. 

Africa is the poorest continent inhabited by residents: Human Development Report 2003 of the United Nations (with 75 countries) to register the position 151 (Gambia) to 175 (Sierra Leone) with African countries.

Religion. 

African people embrace different religions, with Christianity and Islam as the majority religion in the African continent. Approximately 50% of Africans are Christians and another 35% Muslims. Approximately 15% of African indigenous religion of Africa. A small number also embraced Judaism, such as the Beta Israel and Lemba tribe.
Religion has a major role in the life of Egypt. Unofficially, echoed the call to prayer five times a day which determines the various activities. Cairo is also known by a variety of minarets and church. According to the Egyptian constitution, all laws must be in accordance with Islamic law. State recognizes the Hanafi school through the Ministry of Religious Affairs. Imam trained in school for priests and expertise at the University of Al-Azhar, which has a committee to give fatwas to the issue of religion.
90% of the Egyptian population are adherents of Islam, the majority Sunni and some also embraced local Sufi teachings. Approximately 10% of Egyptians embraced Christianity; 95% denominated in Coptic (Coptic Orthodox, Coptic Catholic and Coptic Protestant.

Language. 

Map showing the deployment of the African language groups and some major African languages. Afro-Asiatic languages ​​spread throughout the Sahel, and Southwest Asia. Niger-Congo languages ​​are separated to show the size of the subgroups of Bantu languages.
According to most estimates, Africa has more than a thousand languages. There are four major language groups originating from this continent.
Afro-Asiatic language group is a group of languages ​​which consists of about 240 languages ​​and 285 million speakers widespread throughout North Africa, East Africa, the Sahel, and Southwest Asia.
Nil-Saharan language group consists of more than a hundred languages ​​spoken by 30 million people. Nil-Saharan languages ​​spoken mostly in Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania.
Niger-Congo language group includes most of sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language group in the world in terms of number of languages. A large number of them are auxiliary languages ​​which are used in most of sub-Saharan Africa.
Khoisan language group consists of about 50 languages ​​and is spoken in southern Africa by approximately 120,000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages ​​are endangered language. Khoi and San tribes are considered as indigenous people in the region.
Except for a few countries in East Africa, almost all countries in Africa have adopted official languages ​​that originated outside the continent and spread through colonialism or human displacement. For example, in some countries, English and French languages ​​used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the mass media. Arabic, Portuguese, Afrikaans and Malagasy are other examples of languages ​​that are originally non-African are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private sphere.

Politics.

Africa before colonization.

Before the colonization of Africa is a poor country because of the dry climate conditions making it impossible to grow crops there. Still there are many inland tribes backward there.

Africa during the colonial era.

In countries that have a lot of European population, for example in Rhodesia and South Africa, a system of second-class citizens made to give Europeans more political power.

Demographics.

African people can be divided according to their place of residence, north or south of the Sahara; these groups are called North Africans and Sub-Saharan Africans.
Thank you for reading this article. Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno. sunarnobambang86@gmail.com
author:
http://schema.org/Personal.
https://plus.google.com/105319704331231770941.
name: Bambang Sunarno.
http://primadonablog.blogspot.com/2014/03/did-you-know-about-africa.html
DatePublished: March 3, 2014 at 11:00
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Tag : Africa.

Magician David Copperfield.

Biography. 

Copperfield started playing magic since the age of 12 years , and became the youngest magician accepted as a member of the Society of American Magicians at age 16 , New York University has been invited to teach a course magic .
The name " David Copperfield " taken from a fictional character named David Copperfield appearing in the same titled novel , David Copperfield by Charles Dickens . At the age of 19 years , Copperfield has been performing great at Pagoda Hotel , Honolulu , Hawaii .
Most of the performances in the form of the television special Copperfield and as a guest star in television shows. On the big screen, never played as Ken Copperfield the magician in the horror film Terror Train 1980 production. Additionally, Copperfield has appeared as extras in the film Prêt-à-Porter (1984), but his name was not included in the list of players.
In 1982, Copperfield's Project Magic set up a foundation to help the rehabilitation of patients who have paralyzed hand with teaching magic motion as a method of physical therapy. The method developed is accredited by the American Occupational Therapy Association, and is used in over 1,100 hospitals in 30 countries around the world.
In 1996, Copperfield write fiction anthology titled David Copperfield's Tales of the Impossible that takes the background world of magic and illusion. In writing the book in collaboration Copperfield Dean Koontz, Joyce Carol Oates, Ray Bradbury, and other team members. In the next year published a second volume, David Copperfield's Beyond Imagination (1997).
Copperfield has the International Museum of Art and the Library of Magic in Las Vegas, Nevada. The museum was established in an effort to preserve the history Copperfield magic art, and a collection of antique magic tools, books, and objects related to the art of magic.
Forbes magazine reported David Copperfield has a revenue of 57 million U.S. dollars in 2003. This amount is in order to make it the 10th most expensive celebrity-paid in the world. In 2004, his income was estimated at $ 57 million (ranked 35th), while fixed income in 2005 totaled $ 57 million, but fell to No. 41 in the list of the world's top celebrities. Every year, David Copperfield perform more than 550 shows around the world.

Personal life. 

Copperfield was engaged to supermodel Claudia Schiffer. After having over 6 years, they split in 1999.
Copperfield 's father named Hyman Kotkin or Hy died in February 2006 in San Diego , California . During his life , Hy often accompany their children while touring the world . Copperfield has a website in memory of his father Remember Hy .
In April 2006, Copperfield and two female assistants are victims of an armed robbery in West Palm Beach, Florida. At that time, they had just finished performing when groups of robbers robbed a young age. Second assistant handed over all the money, passports, and cell phones owned. However, according to a statement given to the police, Copperfield did not give anything to the robber. Copperfield claims to be a magician uses sleight of hand to hide his possessions.

The television special. 

The Magic of ABC Starring David Copperfield (1977)
The Magic of David Copperfield (1978)
The Magic of David Copperfield II (1979)
The Magic of David Copperfield III: levitating Ferrari (1980)
The Magic of David Copperfield IV: The Vanishing Airplane (1981)
The Magic of David Copperfield V: Vanishing the Statue of Liberty (1983)
The Magic of David Copperfield VI: Floating Over the Grand Canyon (1984)
The Magic of David Copperfield VII: Familiares (1985)
The Magic of David Copperfield VIII: Walking Through the Great Wall of China (1986)
The Magic of David Copperfield IX: Escape From Alcatraz (1987)
The Magic of David Copperfield X: The Bermuda Triangle (1988)
The Magic of David Copperfield XI: Explosive Encounter (1989)
The Magic of David Copperfield XII: The Niagara Falls Challenge (1990)
The Magic of David Copperfield XIII: Mystery On The Orient Express (1991)
The Magic of David Copperfield XIV: Flying - Live The Dream (1992)
The Magic of David Copperfield XV: Fires Of Passion (1993)
David Copperfield: 15 Years of Magic (1994)
The David Copperfield: The Great Escapes
The Magic of David Copperfield XVII: Tornado of Fire (2001) - the location in the Mid-South Coliseum, Memphis, Tennessee
The Magic of David Copperfield XVII: Tornado of Fire (2001) - European Edition.

Secret Magic David Copperfield. 

Actually it is not my territory to discuss magic tricks. And this is not the purpose of virkology made. I am writing this to make it easier to answer the question. On several occasions many have asked me about the relationship between David Copperfield with Jin. I explain how the tricks are done, and the frequent discussions of this sort lead to them asking any magic tricks (which of course I did not know all of them) or to a discussion whether Jin really exist or not (which again again not my realm). I remember the end of the base of why many rumors that David Copperfield related to Jin. In the book "Dialogue with the Muslim Jin" written by Muhammad Isa Dawud who was a best seller in the 90s told the writer who claimed to be friends of experience with Muslim jinn genie tells about nature, including how the Bermuda Triangle kingdom inhabited by demons and how David Copperfield perform pact with the devil. Jin said that it is clear how the genie carry hundreds of David Copperfield-the-fly and shown a copy of a letter agreement with David Copperfiled devil written in Hebrew.

In a previous article explained that statistically, in terms of traffic, the area versus the number of accidents, there is no mystery of the Bermuda triangle. In this article I will give a reference of how great tricks David Copperfield done even without the help of the genie. Remember, if you insist that David is assisted by Jin, nothing prevents you to believe.

Fly Tricks and Levitation. 

David Copperfield is a phenomenal trick of flight action. Fly action has also been conducted in Indonesia in its heyday. Not just floated in the air, David could hold a woman while flying and also fly in the glass-covered box.
How does it do the trick? Very simple but smart. By using a very thin steel strap. Progress and industry knowledge allows to produce super-thin wire that can hold loads up to 50 kg per strand.

Penetrating the Chinese Wall. 

One of the other attractions that are not less appalling is the penetrating action of the Great Wall of China. How is it possible for and as solid wall that penetrated? David shows how the wall hard and then fabric covered. The shadows seem to penetrate the wall and when the cloth in the open, he is not there.
How does it do the trick? Explanation tricks are described in detail by Valentino in the event Greatest Magic Trick Revealed episode. With the play of light (this is why the trick done before dark), simple hand trick by his assistant, as well as good teamwork, produces an interesting illusion.

Eliminating the Statue of Liberty. 

Another great trick is to remove the statue of liberty. This attraction has been named in the Guinness World of Records in the category "The Largest Disappearance ever performed by a magician."
The secret is to change the viewpoint of the viewer . Only a handful of people who watch the show immediately and the rest ( the remaining millions ) watching via television . The audience sits on the stage that can rotate slowly without the audience realizing it . Spectators are faced with a set of false no statue of liberty on it .

Thank you for reading this article. Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno. sunarnobambang86@gmail.com
author:
http://schema.org/Personal.
https://plus.google.com/105319704331231770941.
name: Bambang Sunarno.
http://primadonablog.blogspot.com/2014/03/magician-david-copperfield.html
DatePublished: March 2, 2014 at 19:54

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Tag : Magician David Copperfield.