Did You Know About Astronomy.

Crab Nebula, a collection of supernova remnants. The image captured by the Hubble telescope.
Astronomy is a branch of natural science that involves the observation of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters, or galaxies) as well as natural phenomena that occur outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation (CMB radiation) ). This is basic science study of the various celestial objects - such as the origin, nature physics / chemistry, meteorology, and motion - and how knowledge of these objects describes the formation and development of the universe.
Astronomy as a science is one of the oldest, as known from astronomical artifacts from the prehistoric era; eg monuments of Egypt and Nubia, or Stonehenge from Britain. The people of early civilizations sort of Babylon, Greece, China, India, and the Maya also found to have done the above methodological observations of the night sky. However, despite having a long history, astronomy could develop into a branch of modern science through the invention of the telescope.
Quite a lot of the branches of science that never are included as part of astronomy, and when observed, the nature of these branches are very diverse: from astrometry, space-based shipping, observational astronomy, to the preparation of the calendar and astrology. However, today's professional astronomy is considered synonymous with astrophysics.
In the 20th century, professional astronomy split into two branches: observational astronomy and theoretical astronomy. The first involves collecting data from observations of celestial objects, which will then be analyzed using basic principles of physics. The second focused on developing computer models / analytical to explain the properties of celestial objects and other natural phenomena. The second branch is complementary - theoretical astronomy seeks to explain the results of observational astronomical observations, and observational astronomy will then try to prove the conclusions made by the theoretical astronomy.
Amateur astronomers have been and continue to play an important role in many astronomical discoveries, making astronomy one of the few sciences where amateurs still maintains an active role, especially in the discovery and observation of transient phenomena.
Astronomy should be distinguished from astrology, which is the belief that human destiny and affairs relating to the location of celestial objects such as stars or rasinya. It is true that these two fields have the same origin, but at this point they are very different.

Lexicology. 

The word comes from the Greek astronomy, namely the words astron (ἄστρον, "star") is then given the suffix-nomy from nomos (νόμος, "law" or "culture"). So it literally means "law / culture of the stars".
The use of the term "astronomy" and "astrophysics".
In general good "astronomy" or "astrophysics" may be used to refer to the same science. If you are referring to the dictionary definitions of the standard, "astronomy" means "the study of celestial objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere as well as the physical properties and chemical material objects and the" moderate "astrophysics" is the branch of astronomy that dealing with "the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of the objects and phenomena of the sky".
In certain cases, for example, at the opening of the book The Physical Universe by Frank Shu, "astronomy" may be used for the qualitative side of this science, being "astrophysics" to the other side which is more oriented physics. Nevertheless, modern astronomical studies mostly deal with topics related to physics, so that we may say that modern astronomy is astrophysics. Many bodies of research that, in deciding to use a term which, just depends on whether they are historically affiliated with the departments of physics or not. Professional astronomers themselves many have a degree in physics. For further illustration, one of the leading scientific journals in the disciplines of Astronomy and Astrophysics named (Astronomy and Astrophysics).

History. 

Space maps of the 17th century, the work of the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit.
At first, only involve astronomical observations along with the prediction of the movements of celestial objects visible to the naked eye. At some sites, such as Stonehenge, early civilizations also compiled artifacts are thought to have astronomical uses. This ancient observatory observatory aims plural ceremonial, but can also be used to determine the seasons, weather, and climate - something that must be known if you want to grow crops - or understand the long years.
Before the invention of equipment like telescopes, research must be done from the top of buildings or high plains, all with the naked eye. Along with the development of civilization, especially in Mesopotamia, China, Egypt, Greece, India, and Central America, the people started to build observatory and ideas on the nature of the universe began bustling examined. Generally, early astronomy preoccupied with mapping the location-location of the stars and planets (now called astrometry), activities that eventually led to theories about the movement of celestial objects and philosophical ideas to explain the origin of the Sun, Moon, and Earth. The earth was then regarded as the center of the universe, being the Sun, Moon, and stars revolve around it; model of this kind is known as the geocentric model or Ptolemaic system (from the name of the Roman-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy).
Greek sun hours, from Ai-Khanoum (now in Afghanistan), 3-2 century BC.
Commencement astronomical calculations based on mathematical and scientific first pioneered by the Babylonians. They found that a lunar eclipse has a regular cycle, called saros cycle. Following the lead of the Babylonian astronomers, the progress for the progress achieved by the later Ancient Greek astronomy community and the surrounding countries. Greek astronomy from the outset was aimed to find a rational explanation for the physics-based and space phenomena. In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos perform calculations of the size of the Earth and the distance between the Earth and the Moon, and then propose a heliocentric model of the solar system - the first time in history. In the 2nd century BC, Hipparchus discovered precession managed, also calculate the size of the Moon and the Sun and the distance between them, and make the research tools like the astrolabe astronomical earliest. The majority of the preparation of the constellations in the northern hemisphere it is still based on the composition of the formulated by him through a catalog which includes 1,020 of that time. Famous Antikythera Mechanism (ca. 150-80 BC) also from the same period: an analog computer used to calculate the location of the sun / moon / planets on a given date is the most complex item in history until the 14th century, when astronomical clocks began to appear in Europe.
In Europe alone during the Middle Ages astronomy was an impasse and stagnation. In contrast, the rapid development in the Islamic world and some other civilization, characterized by the construction of the observatory observatory in the world-there in the early 9th century. In 964, the Persian astronomer Al-Sufi find the Andromeda galaxy (galaxy largest in the Local Group) and recorded in the Book of Fixed Stars (Kitab al-Kawakib Suwar). Supernova SN 1006, the brightest star explosions in recorded history, was observed by the Egyptian astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and the Chinese astronomers separate set of the same year (1006 AD). Astronomers of the Islamic era, mostly from Persian and Arabic, including Al-Battani, Thabit bin Qurrah, al-Sufi, Ibn Balkhi, al-Biruni, Al-Zarqali, Al-Birjandi, and astronomers of the observatory- observatory in Maragha and Samarkand. Through this era star whose names introduced by the Arabic language. Zimbabwe ruins in Britain and Timbuktu also likely to have had an observatory buildings - weakens the previous belief that there is no astronomical observation in sub-Saharan Africa prior to the colonial era.

Scientific revolution. 

Sketch of the Moon by Galileo. Through observation, it is known that the Moon's surface is hilly.
In the Renaissance, Copernicus' heliocentric model the solar system, a model which is then defended from controversy, developed, and corrected by Galileo and Kepler. Galileo's telescope to sharpen innovate with astronomical observations, Kepler was the first scientist who managed to be properly compiled and detailed movements of the planets with the Sun at the center. [28] However, he failed to formulate a theory to explain the laws which he wrote, to finally Newton (who also discovered the reflecting telescope for observations of the sky) to explain the dynamics through space and the laws of gravity.
Along with the improvements in the size and quality of the telescope, the more the further discoveries that happen. Through this technology successfully developed Lacaille catalogs of more complete; similar efforts undertaken by the German-British astronomer Herschel with producing catalogs of nebulae and clusters. In 1781 he discovered the planet Uranus, the first planet found outside the classical planets. Measurement of the distance to a star was first published in 1838 by Bessel, who at the time was to do it through parallax measurements of 61 Cygni.
18th century until the 19th century, first characterized by research on the three-body problem by Euler, Clairaut, and D'Alembert; research that results in a more precise prediction method for the movement of the Moon and the planets. This work was refined by Lagrange and Laplace, allowing scientists to estimate the masses of the planets and satellites through perturbation. The discovery of the spectroscope and photography then pushing the research further: in 1814-1815, Fraunhoffer discovered about 600 bands in the spectrum of the Sun, and in 1859 finally Kirchhoff could explain this phenomenon with the presence atribusiens elements. At this time the stars confirmed as the Sun-sun, another more far away, but with differences in temperature, mass, and size.
Only in the 20th century, the Milky Way (in which the Earth and the Sun is) can be proved as a group of separate from other star groups. From the same observations also concluded that there are other galaxies beyond the Milky Way and the universe continues to expand, because these galaxies continues to move away from our galaxy. Modern astronomy also found and tried to explain celestial objects such as quasars unfamiliar, pulsars, blazar, radio galaxies, black holes, and neutron stars. Physical cosmology advanced by leaps and bounds during this century: a model of the Big Bang (Big Bang), for example, has been supported by astronomical evidence and strong physics (among other CMB radiation, Hubble's law, and the availability of cosmological elements).

Observational astronomy. 

As is known, astronomers need information about celestial objects, and the most important source of information so far is electromagnetic radiation, or more specifically, the visible light. Observational astronomy can be divided according to regions of the electromagnetic spectrum observed: a portion of the spectrum can be observed through the Earth's surface, while other parts can only be reached from a certain height or even only from space. Detailed information about these divisions can be seen below:

Radio astronomy. 

This type of observational astronomy observing radiation with wavelengths greater than one millimeter (estimate). Unlike the other types, the type of observational astronomy observing radio waves that can be treated as a wave, not a discrete photons. Thus the measurement of phase and amplitude is relatively easy when compared to the shorter wavelength.
Radio waves can be generated by astronomical objects through thermal emission, but most of the radio emission observed from Earth is in the form of synchrotron radiation, which is produced when the electrons revolve around the magnetic field. A number of spectral lines produced by interstellar gas (eg hydrogen spectral line at 21 cm) can also be observed at radio wavelengths.
Some examples of objects that can be observed by radio astronomy: supernovae, interstellar gas, pulsars, and active galactic nuclei (AGN - active galactive nucleus).

Infrared astronomy. 

Infrared astronomy and its detection involves analysis of infrared radiation (wavelength radiation which exceeds the red light). Most of these types of radiation absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, except where wavelengths do not differ too much with the red light appears. Therefore, the observatory is about to observe infrared radiation should be built in high places and not damp, or even in space.
This spectrum to observe objects that are too cold to emit visible light, for example, the planets or star discs. If the radiation has a wavelength tend to be longer, it can also help astronomers observe young stars in molecular clouds and galactic cores - because such radiation can penetrate the dust cover and obscure astronomical observations. Infrared astronomy can also be used to study the chemical structure of celestial bodies, as some molecules have a strong emission at this wavelength. One of its uses is to detect the presence of water in comets.

Optical astronomy. 

Subaru Telescope (left) and Keck Observatory (center) on Mauna Kea, both examples of observatories can observe both visible light or infrared light almost. On the right is the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, which is only operating at near-infrared wavelengths.
Known also as visible light astronomy, optical astronomy observing electromagnetic radiation visible to the unaided human eye. Therefore, it is the oldest branch, because it requires no equipment. [38] Starting from the end of the 19th century until about a century later, images of astronomical optical wear photographic technique, but before that they should be drawn by hand . Today digital detectors are used, especially using a CCD (charge-coupled devices, device docked-charge).
Visible light is known as length of 4000 Å to 7000 Å (400-700 nm). Nevertheless, the observation tools used to observe the wavelength used as well as to observe the wave near-ultraviolet and near-infrared.

Ultraviolet astronomy. 

Namely ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of approximately 100 to 3200 Å (10-320 nm). Lengths of light absorbed by the atmosphere as the Earth, so as to observe must be done from the upper atmosphere, or of outer atmosphere (outer space). Astronomy type is suitable for studying the thermal radiation and spectral emission lines of blue stars to extremely high temperature (classification OB), because such stars are very bright radiation ultraungunya - as is often done research and includes the stars located in other galaxies. In addition to the OB stars, celestial objects are often observed through this branch of astronomy include planetary nebulae, supernova remnants, or active galactic nuclei. Adjustment required for different purposes such as easy because the light is swallowed by interstellar dust.

X-ray astronomy. 

Objects may emit light wavelength of X-rays through synchrotron emission (derived from the electrons revolve around the magnetic field) or through thermal emission of concentrated and dilute gas of gas at 107 K.
X-rays are also absorbed by the atmosphere, so observations must be done from the top of the balloon, rocket, or satellite research. The sources of X-rays include X-ray binary star (X-ray binary), pulsars, supernova remnants, elliptical galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and active galactic nuclei.

Gamma-ray astronomy. 

Gamma-ray astronomy studying astronomical objects at the shortest wavelengths (gamma rays). Gamma rays can be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO), or with a special type of telescope called Cherenkov telescopes (IACT).
It's actually kind of telescope does not detect gamma rays, but is able to detect the visible light produced spark from the absorption of gamma rays by the atmosphere.
Most gamma-ray source only in the form of gamma-ray bursts, which only produces the light in a matter of milliseconds to a few tens of seconds. Sources are not permanent and while only about 10% of the total number of sources, for example from the gamma-ray pulsars, neutron stars, or active galactic nuclei and black hole candidates.

The branches that are not based on wavelength. 

A number of other long-distance phenomena that shape other than electromagnetic radiation can be observed from Earth. There is a branch of astronomy called neutrinos, which astronomers use underground facilities (eg SAGE, GALLEX, or Kamioka II / III) to detect neutrinos, fundamental particles that form the plural derived from solar or supernova explosions. When cosmic rays enter the Earth's atmosphere, high-energy particles that compose it breaks down or absorbed, and a particle-particle decay products can be detected in the observatory.
In the future, it is expected there will be a neutrino detector is sensitive to particles that were born from the collision of cosmic rays and the atmosphere.
There is also a new branch using gravitational wave detectors to collect data about objects meeting: gravitational wave astronomy. Observatory-observatory for this field have started to be built, for example the LIGO observatories in Louisiana, USA. But such astronomical difficult, because the gravitational waves is very difficult to detect.
Planetary astronomy experts are also many who observe celestial phenomena directly, which rides through space and sample collection missions. Some only work with remote sensors to collect data, but several others involved with the landing-space vehicle capable of experimenting on the surface. Other methods eg detector immersed material or perform direct experiments on samples brought to Earth before.

Astrometry and celestial mechanics. 

The main article for this section are: Astrometry and celestial mechanics
Measurement location of celestial objects, as mentioned, is one of the branches of astronomy (and even science) the oldest. Activities such as shipping or preparation of the calendar is in desperate need of accurate knowledge of the location of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars in the sky.
Of the measurement process like this produced an excellent understanding of gravitational perturbations and eventually astronomers can determine the position of celestial objects with the right in the past and the future - the branch of astronomy that go into this field known as celestial mechanics. Today the tracking on the objects close to the Earth also allows predictions will be a close encounter, or even collision.
Then there is a star parallax measurements. This measurement is very important because it gives the value of the base in the cosmic distance ladder method; through this method the size and scale of the universe can be known. Measurements of the relative parallax closer can also be used as a basis for absolute traits more distant stars, because the characteristics of them can be compared. Kinematics they then can be developed through the measurement of radial velocity and proper motion respectively. The results can also be used for astrometric measurements of dark matter in the galaxy.
During the 1990s, the technique of measuring the wobble of the astrometry used to detect the presence of planets outside the solar surrounds the stars near the Sun.

Theoretical astronomy. 

There are many types of methods and tools that can be utilized by a theoretical astronomer, among other analytical models (eg politrop to predict the behavior of a star) and computational numerical simulations, each with its own advantages. Analytical models are generally better if researchers want to know the specifics issues and observe what happens in outline; numerical models can reveal the existence of phenomena and effects that are not easily visible.
Theorists attempt to create theoretical models and concluded that the effects can be observed from these models. It will help the observer to know what data to look for to disprove a model, or decide which is true of alternative models to the contrary. Theorists also will try to draw up a new model or improve an existing model if no new data is entered. In the event of conflict / inconsistency, the tendency is to make minimal modifications to the model in question to accommodate the data that have been obtained. If the opposition too much, the model can be discarded and not used again.
Topics studied by theoretical astronomers include: dynamics and evolution of stars; formation of galaxies; Large-scale structure of matter in the universe, the origin of cosmic rays; general relativity, and cosmology physical (including string cosmology and physics astropartikel) . Astrophysical relativity is used to measure the characteristics of large-scale structures, where there is a major role of the force of gravity; well as the basis of the physics of black holes and gravitational wave research.
Some models / theories that have been widely accepted and studied the theory of the big bang, cosmic inflation, dark matter, and fundamental theories of physics. This group of models and theories have been integrated in the Lambda-CDM models.

Some examples of the process: 

Physical process of experiment Tool The theoretical model described / predicted
Gravity radio telescope Nordtvedt Effect (self-gravity system) The Birth of a star system
Evolution of nuclear fusion Spectroscopy How incandescent star, how metal is formed (nucleosynthesis).
Big Bang (Big Bang) Hubble Space Telescope, COBE Age universe expanding universe
The problem of quantum fluctuations of cosmic inflation of the universe flatness (flatness problem)
Gravitational collapse of X-ray Astronomy A set of general relativity black hole at the center of the Andromeda Galaxy.
CNO cycle in stars
Discourse that was warm in astronomy in recent years is the dark matter and dark energy - the discovery and controversy regarding these topics stems from the study of galaxies.

Specific branches. 

Solar astronomy. 

Active ultraviolet image of the Sun's photosphere, the catch by NASA's TRACE telescope.
The sun is the nearest star from Earth in about 8 minutes of light, and the most frequently researched: it is a dwarf on the main sequence G2 classification V and about 4.6 billion years old. Although not up to the level of the variable star, the Sun is a slight change of light through the activity known as the sunspot cycle - fluctuations in the number of spots sun for eleven years. Sun spots are areas with lower temperatures and intense magnetic activity.
Sun's luminosity is still growing strong throughout his life, and since the first time on the main sequence has been increased by 40%. The sun also has recorded periodic changes in luminosity, something which could lead to significant consequences to life on Earth. For example, the period of the Maunder minimum, which is to cause the phenomenon of the little ice age in the Middle Ages.
Outer surface of the sun that we can see is called the photosphere. On it there is a thin layer that is normally not visible due to the brightness of the photosphere, the chromosphere. Above that there is a transition layer where the temperature can rise quickly, and in it lies the very hot corona.
In the center of the Sun is the core region; existing levels of temperature and pressure sufficient here so that nuclear fusion can occur. On it there is a radiative zone; plasma here will dissipate heat through radiation process. At the top of the radiative zone is the convective zone; material gas in this zone will energy dissipates most of the movement of material through the gas itself. This zone is believed to be the source of the magnetic activity of the Sun producing spots.
There is a form of solar wind plasma particles blowing out from the Sun continuously until it reaches the point of the heliopause. The wind is met with the Earth's magnetosphere and radiation belts form the Van Allen and - in which the magnetic field lines of the Earth's atmosphere to down - produce the aurora.

Planetary science. 

This branch of astronomy examines the composition of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids, and other celestial objects that surround stars, especially the Sun, although this science also includes the outer solar planets. Our own solar system has been studied in depth - first of all through the telescope and then use the vehicles of space - so the current understanding of the formation and evolution of planetary systems is already very good, although there are still new discoveries are happening.
Black dot on top is a vicious dust (dust devil) who was climbing a crater on Mars. It is similar to a tornado that twisted and moved, resulting in "tails" are long and dark. Image by NASA.
Solar System is divided into several groups: the inner planets, the asteroid belt, and the outer planets. Inner planets are terrestrial planets which are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. The outer planets are gas giants of the solar system are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. If we go further, it will be found objects trans-Neptunian: first Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud could eventually stretched to a light year.
The formation of the planets originated in a protoplanetary disc around the Sun that in the initial periods. Realization of this disc clumps of matter through a process involving the pull of gravity, collision, and accretion; these clumps then gradually becoming protoplanetary collection. Because the radiation pressure of the solar wind continues to push the materials that have not clot, only planets whose mass is large enough that is able to maintain a gaseous atmosphere. The planets continued to sweep this young and spew the remaining material, produces a period of great destruction. Remnants of this period can be seen through the many craters on the lunar surface collisions. As in this period the majority of the protoplanet-protoplanet that there may collide with one another; likely collision as that which gave birth to our moon.
When a planet reaches a certain mass, the materials with different densities begin to separate from one another in a process called planetary differentiation. Such a process could produce rocky core or materials composed of metal, covered by a layer of the mantle and the outer surface. The core of the planet can be divided into areas of solid and liquid, and some are able to produce their own magnetic field, so that the planet can be protected from the solar wind.
The heat in the interior of a planet or moon comes from the collisions that produced solely by planet / month, or by radioactive materials (eg uranium, thorium, or 26Al), or tidal heating. Some planets and moons managed to collect enough heat to drive geologic processes such as volcanism and tectonic activities. If the planet / moon also has an atmosphere, the erosion of the surface (through wind or water) can also occur. Planet / moon smaller and without tidal heating would be cool faster and geological activities will come to an end, with the exception of the formation of craters collision.

Astronomy star. 

Ant Nebula. Gas spewed from a dying star at its center is unusual because it forms a symmetrical pattern, not chaotic like an explosion in general.
To understand the universe, the study of the stars and how they evolve is fundamental. Astrophysics with respect to the stars themselves can be known either through observation terms and theoretical terms, as well as through computer simulation.
Stars form in giant molecular clouds, which are dense regions of dust and gas will. When it loses its stability, fragments of these clouds can collapse under the force of gravity to form a protostar. If part of the point reaches a certain density and temperature, nuclear fusion will be triggered and will form a main sequence star.
Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are the result of processes that occur in the core of stars.
The characteristics that will be owned by the outline of a star is determined by the initial mass : the greater the mass , the higher the luminositasnya , and the sooner he will spend the hydrogen fuel in the core . Gradually , the hydrogen fuel is converted into helium , and the star in question will begin to evolve . To perform the fusion of helium requires a higher core temperature , so it will be more solid core and double the size of any star - the star has become a red giant . Red giant phase is relatively short , until the helium fuel also is used up . If the star has a very large mass , it will begin the phases of evolution where it has narrowed gradually , since resorted to nuclear fusion of the elements heavier .
As for the final fate of a star depends also on the mass . If the mass is more than about eight times our sun , the gravitational core will collapse and produce a supernova , otherwise , would be a planetary nebula , and continues to evolve into a white dwarf . What remains after a supernova eruption is a very dense neutron star , or , if the matter rest three times the mass of the Sun , a black hole . Binary stars that are close together can be more complicated evolution , for example , can occur in the direction of mass transfer his star that can cause a supernova .
Planetary nebulae and supernovas required to process the distribution of metals in the interstellar medium , otherwise Thus, all new stars ( and their planetary systems ) would be composed only of hydrogen and helium alone .

Galactic astronomy .

The structure of the spiral arms of the Milky Way that has been observed .
Circulating in our Solar System in the Milky Way , a barred spiral galaxy in the Local Group . He is one of the most prominent in the galaxy group . Milky Way rotate material gas , dust , stars, and other objects , all gathered together due to gravitational pull . Earth itself is located on a dusty galaxy arm that is on the outside , so a lot of areas that are not visible Milky Way .
At the center is the core of the galaxy , sort of like a rod -shaped protrusions ; believed that there is a supermassive black hole at the center of this . This section is surrounded by four primary arms that circle from the center toward the outside , and it is rich in phenomena of star formation , so it contains many young stars
( metalisitas population I). The disc is then covered by a ring galaxy contains stars that are older ( metalisitas population II ) and also clusters of spherical
(globular) , which is a kind of star clusters are relatively more dense .
The area between the stars is called the interstellar medium , ie areas containing rare material - parts are relatively populous molecular clouds containing hydrogen and other elements , a place where many new stars will be born . Will initially formed a core of pre - docked or dark nebula and then collapse ( in volumes determined by the Jeans length ) to build a protostar .
While many big stars who appeared , they will transform into a cloud of molecular clouds H II regions , namely cloud with incandescent gas and plasma . In the end the wind and supernova explosions from these stars will disperse the remaining clouds , usually results in a ( or more than one ) new open star clusters . These clusters gradually glow , and the stars join the Milky Way .
Numerous studies kinematics with respect to the materials in the Milky Way ( and other galaxies ) indicate that the material that looks mass less than the mass of the entire galaxy . This indicates there is a so-called dark matter that is responsible for most of the overall mass , but many things are still unknown about this mysterious material .

Extragalactic astronomy .

The image above displays some circular blue object ; these are images of the same galaxy , by gravitational lens effect caused by a cluster of yellow galaxies at the center of the photograph . The lens effect generated clusters and gravitational fields bend light so that an image one object further magnified and distorted .
The study objects that are outside our galaxy - extragalactic astronomy - a branch that studies the formation and evolution of galaxies , their morphology and classification , as well as observations of active galaxies and their groups and clusters of galaxies . This , especially the latter , it is important to understand the structure of the universe on a large scale .
Most galaxies will form certain beings , so that the classification can be prepared based on these beings . Usually , they are divided into spiral galaxies , elliptical , and irregular .
Just like the name suggests , an elliptical galaxy is shaped like an ellipse . The stars revolve pata random orbit without a clear direction towards . These galaxies like dust content very little or none; producing region is not much the star , and the average occupant of the stars of old . Elliptical galaxies are usually found in the core of a galaxy cluster , and can be born through the fusion of large galaxies .
Forming spiral galaxies rotating flat disc , usually with a bulge or bar at the center of the spiral arms and bright arising from the passage. These arms are dusty field where the birth of new stars , and its inhabitants are young stars that have masses large and glowing blue . Generally , the spiral galaxy surrounded by a ring composed of stars that are older . Examples of this kind of galaxy is the Milky Way and Andromeda .
The galaxies are chaotic and irregular shape does not resemble a particular wake like a spiral or an elliptical . Roughly one quarter of the galaxies classified as irregular , probably caused by the gravitational interaction .
A galaxy is said to be active if it emits a significant amount of energy from sources other than the stars , dust , or gas ; too , if the power source comes from the dense area around the nucleus - the possibility of a supermassive black hole that emits radiation of objects that he swallowed .
If an active galactic radiation radio spectrum has a very bright and emit large amounts of gas because , the galaxy is classified as a radio galaxy . Examples of such galaxies are Seyfert galaxies , quasars , and blazar . Quasar is now believed to be the most certainly very bright , never found specimens dim .
Large -scale structure of the universe is now described as a collection of groups and clusters of galaxies . This structure is further classified in a hierarchy of groupings ; biggest is maha - cluster ( a supercluster ) . Then these groups are arranged into filaments and walls of galaxies , with nothing in between them .

Cosmology .

Cosmology , from the Greek word cosmos ( κόσμος , " world " ) and the suffix - logia of logos ( λόγος , " study " ) can be understood as an effort to examine the universe as a whole .
Observations of large -scale structure of the universe , a branch known as physical cosmology , has donated a thorough understanding of the formation and evolution of the universe . One of the most important theories ( and widely accepted ) is the Big Bang theory , which states that the world begins at one point and expands over 13.7 billion years up to the present .
This idea can be traced back to the discovery of the microwave background radiation cosmic in 1965 .
During the development process , nature has undergone some degree of evolution . At first , it is suspected that there is a very rapid cosmic inflation , resulting in homogenization of the initial conditions . After it through nucleosynthesis resulting availability of the elements for the early period of the universe .
When the first popping atoms , space became transparent to radiation , releasing the energy that is now known as the CMB radiation . Universe was expanding into the middle of the Dark Ages , because there is no source of power that can emit light .
A hierarchical structure of matter began to form through small variations in density.
The material then accumulated in the regions with the highest density , spawned clouds of gas and stars are the most ancient ( metalisitas III ) . These massive stars triggered the reionization and is believed to have created many of the heavy elements in the early universe ; these elements tend to decay back into the elements lighter extending the cycle .
The collection is triggered by gravity resulting in material form filaments and leaving empty spaces in between . Gradually , the gas and dust merged to form the primitive galaxies . Over time more and more material is withdrawn , and is organized into groups and clusters of galaxies . In the end , maha - larger clusters was realized .
Other objects that play an important role in the structure of the universe is dark matter and dark energy . These objects which turned out to be a major component of our world , where their mass reaches 96 % of the total mass of the universe . Therefore , efforts are made ​​to examine and understand the terms of the physics of these objects .

Interdisciplinary studies .

Astronomy and astrophysics has floated a strong relationship with the branches of other sciences . Arkeoastronomi For example , the study of ancient or traditional astronomy in the context of their respective cultures using archaeological evidence and anthropological . Or astrobiology , this time studying the birth and development of biological systems in the universe, particularly on the topic of life on other planets .
There is also a branch that examines the chemicals found in space , how they manifest , behave , and indestructible . This is called astrokimia . Substances to be studied is usually found in molecular clouds , although there are also contained in the low -temperature stars , brown dwarf , or planet . Then kosmokimia , similar science research leads to the elements and isotope ratio variations in the Solar System . These sciences can describe the intersection of the sciences of astronomy and chemistry . Even now there are forensic astronomy , where astronomical methods used to solve the problems of law and history .

Amateur astronomy .

Amateur astronomers can build their own equipment and organize parties and meetings astronomy , for example Stellafane community .
As mentioned , astronomy is one of the few branches of science where amateurs can contribute a lot . Overall, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena , sometimes even with the equipment that they make themselves . The plural is observed that the Moon , planets, stars , comets , meteor showers , and objects in the sky such as star clusters, galaxies , and nebulae . One branch of amateur astronomy is amateur astrophotography , which involves retrieval photographs of the night sky . Many choose to be astrofotografer that spesialis in certain objects or events .
Most amateur astronomers working in optical astronomy , although there is also a small part to experiment with wavelengths outside the visible light , for example with infrared filters on conventional telescopes or use radio telescopes . Pioneer of amateur radio astronomy was Karl Jansky , who started this event in the 1930s . Amateur Jansky 's kind of like wearing a homemade telescope or professional radio telescopes now be accessible to the amateur as well as the One Mile Telescope ( One - Mile Telescope ) .
Contribution of amateur astronomers are not trivial , because a lot of things - like taking the measurements of the occultation in order to sharpen records planets orbit small - rely on the work of amateur astronomy . The amateur can also find a comet or doing routine research over variable stars . Along with the development of digital technology , amateur astrophotography is also more effective and even more to contribute knowledge .

List of unsolved problems of astronomy .

Although the science of astronomy has experienced progress very rapidly and make the breakthroughs that are very large in an effort to understand the universe and everything in it , there are still some important questions yet to be answered . To solve such problems , may require building new equipment in both the surface of the Earth and in space . Moreover, it may also be required of new developments in theoretical and experimental physics .
Is the origin of the stellar mass spectrum ? That is , why do astronomers continue to observe the same mass distribution - that is , the same initial mass function - although the initial establishment of the state of the stars vary ?
Required a deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets .
Are there any other life form in the universe ? Is there any form of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe ? If there is , what is the answer to the Fermi paradox ? If there is life outside of Earth, its implications, both scientific and philosophical , is very important .  Are we including the Solar System normal or unusual turns ?
What caused the formation of the universe ? Is the premise underlying the hypothesis " that the universe is well tuned " ( fine-tuned universe ) right ? If appropriate , if there is such a large-scale cosmological natural selection ? What exactly causes early cosmic inflation , so nature becomes homogeneous ? Why there is a baryon asymmetry in the universe ?
What is the true nature of dark matter and dark energy ? They have dominated the development process and , ultimately , the fate of the universe , but their fundamental properties still have not understood .
 What will happen in the end times ?
How the first galaxies formed ? How supermassive black holes form ?
What produces energy cosmic rays ultra-high?
So, thank you for reading this article . Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno.
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DatePublished: February 14, 2014 at 22:12

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Did you know Geometry History.

Definition of Geometry. 

Geometry (Greek; geo = earth, Metria = measure) is a part of mathematics that takes the issue of size, shape, and position as well as the nature of space. Geometry is one of the oldest sciences. Beginning a body of practical knowledge that is taking heavy with distance, area and volume, but in the 3rd century geometry is progressing on aksiometik form by Euclid, whose results are influential for the next several centuries.
Geometry is one of the branches of the mathematical sciences. Science literally means geometry measurements of the Earth, which is the study of relationships in space. Indeed, the science of geometry already studied ancient Egyptian civilization, the people of the Indus River Valley and Babylonia.
This ancient civilizations known to have expertise in swamp drainage, irrigation, flood control and construction of buildings-large buildings. Most ancient Egyptians and Babylonians geometry is limited to the calculation of line segments length, area, and volume.

Brief History of Geometry.

There are at least six areas that can be seen as a 'source' geometry knowledge contributors, namely: Babylon (4000 BC - 500 BC), Greece (600 BC - 400 BC), Egypt (5000 BC - 500 BC), Jasirah Arabic (600 - 1500 AD), India (1500 BC - 200 BC), and China (100 BC - 1400). Of course there are still states that another contributor to the knowledge of geometry, however, is less significant or not recorded in the manuscript tradition.
The Babylonians occupied the fertile region lying between the Euphrates and the Tigris in the Middle East region. At first, the area occupied by the Sumerians. At that time, 3500 BC, or about 5000 years ago has been living very advanced. Many buildings built as the town time now. Irrigation systems and rice farming has also grown. Geometry considered by engineers for development purposes.
Geometry is born and developed in Babylon is a result of the desires and expectations of government and religious leaders of the time. It is intended to be set up a variety of solid construction and great. Also hope for the king in order to control the land for the benefit of the tax revenue. Geometry techniques developed at that time in general is still rough and intuitive. However, quite accurate and can meet the needs of a variety of facts about the calculation of the techniques currently loaded geometry Ahmes Papyrus, written in approximately 1650 BC and discovered in the 9th century. Remains of this paper is a part of the goods stored by museums in London and New York. In this papyrus contained the formula of calculating the area of ​​a rectangle, right triangle, trapezoid that has legs perpendicular to the base, as well as the approach to the calculation formula of the area of ​​a circle. The Egyptians seem to have developed these formulas in their lives to calculate the area of ​​cultivated fields.
In addition to continuing to develop geometry, they also developed a number system that we now know as 'sexagesimal' based 60. We still enjoy (and use) this system when talking about time.
They divided the day into 24 hours. One hour divided into 60 minutes. One minute divided into 60 seconds. We say, for example, is currently at 9 o'clock, 25 minutes, 30 seconds. When written will form at 9 25 '30 ", and in sexagesimal can be written as 9 5 25/60 30/3600. Systems has been using place value as we use today (in base 10 rather than in base 60).
The Babylonians developed a way of calculating area and volume. Among them calculate the circumference of a circle is equal to three times the length of its diameter. We know the price of these three approaches π price. Pythagorean formula has also been known at that time.
The Egyptians inhabit a very fertile region along the Nile. Agriculture is growing rapidly. The government needs a way to divide the rice plots fairly. Thus, the geometry developed here because it presents various polygon shapes that are customized to the situation in the region along the Nile river.
In Greece, the geometry experienced the 'emas' her. Around 2,000 years ago, found the theory that we know today by the name of axiomatic theories. Theory think that bases itself on the most basic things that we take for granted the truth. This kind of truth we call truth axiom. Axiom derived from a variety of basic arguments of the arguments and the arguments of both derivatives. From this era, we also share in the geometry book that has yet indisputable, namely Euclidean geometry. Geometry we teach formally in school is 'coffee-ness' of the Euclidean geometry.
In the early development of Islam, Islamic leaders encourage studying as much as possible. We learn to know as China. In that era, Islam spread in the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, Portugal, and Persian. The Islamic mathematicians contributed to the development of algebra, asronomi, and trigonometry. Trigonometry is one approach to resolving problems in algebraic geometry. We know her into analytic geometry. They also develop a polynomial.
In the eastern region, India and China are known contributor reliable mathematical knowledge. In India, the mathematician has the duty to make a variety of buildings burning to the victim at the altar. One of the conditions is a form of be (even should) be different but should be the same breadth. For example, create a burning building consisting of five levels and each level consists of 200 bricks. In between the two levels of the order should not be exactly the same brick. When it appeared geometry expert in India. Of course, the building was also equipped with a roof. The roof is also part Indian mathematician task. This is where developing theories of geometry.
Like the branches of other science, math (including geometry) also developed by Chinese scientists since 2000 BC (or about 4,000 years ago). While in Europe there is a book 'Elements', Euclidean geometry is able to penetrate the time 2000 years unchallenged, in the east, the Chinese are the Nine chapters on mathematical' created around the year 179 by Liu Hui. This book contains a lot of geometry problems. Among them calculate the area and volume. In the book explores the law of Pythagoras. Also a lot of talk about polygons.
At the mid-day, the Muslim mathematician contributed much on the development of geometry, especially algebraic geometry and algebraic geometry. Al-Mahani (1853) got the idea to describe the problem geometry as copying the cube to problems in algebra form. Thabit ibn Qurra (known as a Thebit in Latin) (836-901) arimetikal control to control the ratio of the quantity given to the geometry, and contribute on the development of analytic geomeri. Omar Khayyam (1048 -1131) for resolution geometry to find a cubic equation, and further investigation is the development of the largest Euclidean geometry instead.
In the early 17th century, there were two important developments in geometry. The first, and most important, is the creation of analic geometry, or geometry with coordinates and equations, by René Descartes (1596-1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). This was the beginning that the need for the development of calculus. The second is a geometric progression systematic investigation of projective geometry by Girard Desargues (1591-1661). Projective geometry is geometry without measurement probe, Just by probing how the relationship between each other.
Two developments in geometry in the 19th century, changed the way he had learned previously. This is not Euclidean Geometry discovery by Lobachevsky, Bolyai and Gauss and of the formulation of symmetry as a primary consideration in the Erlangen Programme of Felix Klein (which concludes Euclid Euclidean geometry and not). Two of the experts geometry at that time was Bernhard Riemann, working in mathematical analysis, and Henri Poincaré, as the originator of the theory of geometric topology algebraik and dynamics of the system.
As a result of these major changes in the conception of geometry, the concept of "space" became something rich and distinct, and the background was originally only different theories such as complex analysis and classical mechanics. Traditional type of geometry has been known for sure as of a homogeneous space, namely the space it has a sufficient stock of symmetry, so that from the point to the point they look the same.

Characters Geometry.

1. Thales (640-546 BC).

At first geometry based solely born by experience. But the mathematician who first felt dissatisfied with the method based solely on experience is Thales (640-546 BC). Thales Mathematical Society now appreciate as a person who always say "Prove it" and even he was always doing that. Of the many theorems are:
- The corners of the base of an isosceles triangle are congruent,
- The corners of the bracket is congruent,
- An angle that is expressed in a semi-circle is a right angle.
The work and principles Theles clearly have marked the beginning of an era of advancement of mathematics that develop deductive proof as logical reasons can be accepted. Deductive proof of the theorem is necessary to derive postulates. Furthermore, to formulate a new statement is logical.

2. Pythagoras (582-507 BC) 

After the death of Thales came Pythagoras (582-507 BC) following his followers, known as the Pythagorean proceed step Thales. The Pythagorean method of proof is not only to develop the Pythagorean Theorem, but also to the theorems the angles in a polygon, the properties of parallel lines, theorems about the amounts are not comparable, and theorems about five solid wake irregular.

3. Euclid (300 BC) 

Not many people are lucky to have a lasting fame as Euclid, Greek geometer great. Although during his lifetime such figures as Napoleon, Martin Luther, Alexander the Great, far more famous than Euclid but in the long run may surpass all their fame called it.
Besides fame, almost no detailed information about Euclid's life that can be known. For example, we know he's been active as a teacher in Alexandria, Egypt, around 300 BC, but when he was born and when he died really dark. In fact, we do not know in what continent and in what city he was born. Although he wrote several books and left them still there, its place in history is mainly located in the great book on geometry called The Elements.
In the Elements, Euclid combine school work he has to know with all the mathematical knowledge that he knew in a systematic comparison to be an amazing result. Most of the work is original, as the deductive method he demonstrated most of the required knowledge through reasoning. In Euclid's Elements was explaining algebra and number theory as well as he describes the geometry.
The importance of the book The Elements does not lie in the personal statement formulas are flung. Almost all theory contained in the book was never written one before, and also can be verified. Donations Euclid lies in the way of setting materials and problems as well as the overall formulation in planning the preparation of the book. Here involved, the most important, the selection of the arguments and the calculations, for example, about the possibility of drawing a straight line between two points.
Subsequently carefully and cautiously he set up the arguments so easily understood by the people afterward. When necessary, she provides instructions on how to split things unsolved and develop experiments to problems missed. It should be noted that the book The Elements other than primarily a development of rigorous geometry, also in addition it contains the parts about following extensive algebraic summation theory.
Books of The Elements is already the standard handbook of over 2000 years and is the most successful book ever compiled humans. Euclid compiled his book so great that from the shape alone is able to get rid of the books that never made before.
As a trainer tool logic of the human mind, the book The Elements is much more powerful than all the treatises of Aristotle's logic. The book is a complete example about the structure of deductive thinking and is a stunning piece of all the creations of the human brain.
Fair to say that the book of Euclid is an important factor for the growth of modern science. Science is not just a collection of observations carefully and not just generalize too sharp and wise. The results are taken large modern science comes from a combination of empirical investigation work and experiments on the one hand, with careful analysis and conclusions which have a strong base on the other.
Euclid influence on Sir Isaac Newton are felt at all, since Newton wrote the famous book by the name of The Principia in the form of geometry, similar to the Elements. Various scientists are trying to identify with the way Euclid shows how all of their conclusions logically originated from the original assumptions. Not unless what is done by mathematicians such as Russell, Whitehead and philosopher Spinoza.
Now, mathematicians already understand that the geometry of Euclid. is not the only system of geometry that is so basic and firm grip, and that can be planned as well, they also understand that during the last 150 years many people who formulate the geometry is not a la Euclid. Actually, since Einstein's theory of relativity was accepted by, the scientists realized that Euclidean geometry is not always true in the real application of the horizon problem.
At about the proximity of "black hole" and a neutron star - for example - which are in a high degree of gravity, Euclidean geometry does not give a thorough picture of the world, or do not show the exact translation of the space as a whole. However, these examples are rare, because in many ways the work of Euclid provides a probability estimate is closer to reality. Recent advancement of human knowledge is not the result of intellectual effort reduces both Euclid and of the importance of his position in history.

4. Scientists-Muslim Scientists 

In the era of the Islamic Caliphate, Muslim scientists also helped develop the geometry. In fact, in the medieval era, the geometry is controlled by the Muslim mathematician. No wonder the Islamic civilization contributed a significant contribution to the development of that branch of modern mathematics.
Achievement in the golden era of Islamic civilization in the field of geometry is extremely amazing. Why not. Researchers in the United States (U.S.) found that in the 15th century AD, Muslim scholars have used the crystal-like geometric patterns. In fact, modern mathematicians only recently discovered the pla design geometry in the 20th century AD
According to a study published in the journal Science, the golden era of Muslim mathematicians have demonstrated an important breakthrough in the field of mathematics and art design in the 12th century AD "It's very impressive," said Peter Lu, researchers from Harvard, the U.S., told the BBC.
Peter Lu revealed, the mathematicians and designers in the Muslim Caliphate era have been able to make the design of walls, floors and ceilings using tiles that reflect the use of mathematical formulas so sophisticated. '' Theory of the newly discovered 20 or 30 years ago, "he said.
Design in Islamic art uses geometric rules with crystal-like shape using polygon shape to create a symmetrical pattern. Until now, the general view is outstanding and intricate patterns star shaped polygon in Islamic art design is achieved by using a zigzag line drawn with a ruler and compass.
"You can see the development of these sophisticated geometric design. So they start with a simple design patterns, and long into the more complex," added Peter Lu. Peter Lu's discovery proves that Islamic civilization has been able to achieve remarkable progress in the field of geometry.
So how Muslim mathematicians developed the geometry? In the 9th century AD, the Muslim mathematician named Khwarizmi has developed geometry. Initially, studied the geometry of the leading mathematicians of the book entitled The Elements of Euclid's work. He then developed a variety of geometries and find new things in the study of relationships in space. Al-Khwarizmi invented the term secans and tangent in trigonometry and astronomy investigation. He also found a number system that is essential for the modern number system. In the Number System, al-Khwarizmi contains cosine terms, Sine and tangent to solve trigonometric equations, isosceles triangle theorem, calculation of area of ​​a triangle, square and circle area calculation in geometry.
The study of al-Khwarizmi is considered as a major revolution in the world of mathematics. He connects the geometric concepts of ancient Greek mathematics into a new concept. Studies of al-Khwarizmi generate a combined theory that allows rational numbers / irrational, geometry quantities are treated as objects of algebra.
The study of al-Khwarizmi allow systematic application of algebra. For example, the application of arithmetic to algebra and vice versa, and the opposite algebra to trigonometry, algebra to number theory, algebra to geometry and vice versa. These studies underlie the creation of polynomial algebra, combinatorial analysis, numerical analysis, numerical solutions of equations, number theory, geometry and construction of the equation. The concept of geometry in mathematics introduced by al-Khwarizmi also very important in the field of astronomy. Because Astronomy is the science that studies the stars including position, movement, and interpretation related to the star. In order to calculate the position of the earth requires the calculation geometry.
Muslim scientists who contributed to developing the geometry of Thabit Ibn Qurra is. Muslim mathematician known as Thebit call it is also one of the leading Islamic scholars in the field of Geometry. He did important discoveries in the field of mathematics as integral calculus, trigonometry, analytic geometry, and the geometry of non-Eucledian.
One of the works of Thabit phenomenal in the field of geometry is his book The composition of Ratios (composition ratio). In the book, Thabit apply to the ratio between the quantity of arithmetic geometry. This thinking, far beyond the discovery of the ancient Greek scientist in the field of geometry.
Thabit donations to other geometry that is, the development of the theory of Pythagorean geometry in which he developed it from a right-angled triangle special to all right-angled triangles. Thabit also studied geometry to support the discovery curve required to form an image of the sun.
In addition, other Muslim scientists who contributed to developing the geometry is Ibn al-Haitham. In the field of geometry, Ibn al-Haitham develop analytical geometry linking geometry to algebra. In addition, he also introduced the concept of motion and transformation in geometry. Ibn al-Haitham theory in a square field is the first time that the theory of elliptic geometry and hyperbolic geometry. This theory is considered as a sign of the emergence of non-Euclidean geometry. The works of Ibn al-Haitham it affects the work of experts such as the geometry of the Persian Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Omar Khayyam. However, the influence of Ibn al-Haytham do not stop in Asia alone. A number of European experts geometry as Gersonides, Witelo, Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri, John Wallis was affected and thought of al-Haitham. One of his leader in the science of geometry is Kitab al-Tahlil wa al'Tarkib.
Other Muslim scholars who contributed to developing Abu Nasr Mansur geometry is Ibn Ali ibn Iraq or commonly referred to as Abu Nasr Mansur. He merupakana one expert who studied the geometry of spherical geometry (geometry related to astronomy). Spherical geometry is very important to solve difficult problems in the Islamic astonomi. Muslims need to determine the proper time for prayer, Ramadan, as well as a good feast of Eid al-Adha and Eid. With the help of spherical geometry, Muslims are now able to estimate these times with ease.
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DatePublished: February 14, 2014 at 20:49
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The first discovery.

The discovery of a wide variety of tools and objects in the world is very useful for the development of our lives , such as computers . Computers at the time was first made ​​and found , weighing roughly be ton - Tonan . But over the times we can enjoy computers easily and with a smaller model . Here is the first discovery in the world 3 .

World's First Novel ( 1007 ) : Tale of Genji.

The Tale of Genji ( Genji Monogatari ) is a classic work of Japanese literature written by Japanese noblewoman . In 1007 , the Japanese noblewoman of the court is putting the finishing touches on what is considered the world's first novel . Spanning 75 years, more than 350 characters, and brimming with romantic poems, which tells the story of an emperor's son , his quest for love , and a lot of eligible women along the way . Written by Murasaki Shikibu Japanese nobility .
The first partial translation of Genji Monogatari into English done by Suematsu Kencho , and published in 1882 . Arthur Waley translation published six volumes except for one chapter , with the first volume was published in 1921 and last in 1933 . In 1976 , Edward Seidensticker published the first complete translation into English . Latest English translation was published in 2001 by Royall Tyler . The Tale of Genji has been translated into cinematic form ( film) several times , namely in 1951 by director Kozaburo Yoshimura, 1966 by director Kon Ichikawa. In addition , The Tale of Genji has also been adapted into an opera by Miki Minoru .

World's First Motorcycle ( 1885) : Daimler 's " riding car ".

Just like the first car in the world , the world's first motorcycle was born in Germany . Was Gottlieb Daimler and his partner , Wilhelm Maybach , two German experts four-stroke engine , which created the world's first motorcycle . In 1885 , Daimler pair of small -sized four-stroke engine in a wooden bicycle . Machine is placed in the middle
( between the front and rear wheels ) and connected by a chain to the rear wheel .
Wooden bike engine was named Reitwagen ( riding car ) and is the first motorcycle in the world . Maybach try Reitwagen far as 3 kilometers along the river Neckar , from Cannstatt to Untertà ¼ rkheim , with a speed of 12 kilometers per hour . At that time , Reitwagen not sold to the public . Installation of the engine on a wooden bicycle that is a series of experiments conducted by Daimler and Maybach , before installing a four-stroke engine in a horse carriage , which became the forerunner of the birth of the car . In 1893 , the first motorcycle sold to the public was made by the motorcycle factories wolfma ¼ ller und Hildebrand in Munich , Germany . This bike does not use the chain . The rear wheels are driven directly by the crankshaft ( crankshaft ) . This is a motorcycle owned by John C. Potter , the first sugar mill machinist Oemboel , Probolinggo , East Java , in 1893 . He ordered the motorbike directly to the factory in Munich . John Potter was recorded as the first to have a motorcycle in Indonesia , which at the time was still under Dutch occupation , and named Dutch ( Netherlands East Indies ) .

First X-ray In The World ( 1895) : Röntgen 's wife hand.

In 1895 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen , professor of physics at the University of Wurburg Germany , was doing experiments with electrical discharges in evacuated glass tubes . Late in 1895 Wilhelm Röntgen was alone at night doing his experiments , this time in the dark and see the light produced on the wall , which he knew was not caused by fluorescent light. He named, rays 'X ' or if you prefer ; X - ray.
After a few months of playing with his discovery he noticed that objects place in the path of the rays cast shadows and created images on the wall . As soon as he uses the dish and photographing his wife , Frau Röntgen , place her hand in the path of the X - ray , and created the first X-ray image in the world . In 1901 Wilhelm Röntgen was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery .
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DatePublished: February 14, 2014 at 19:01

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Did You Know About Fish Cork.

Catfish is a kind of predatory fish that live in fresh water . This fish is known by many names in different regions : bocek of Riau , Aruan , Haruan ( Mly. , BJN ) , kocolan ( btw. ) , Bogo ( Sd. ) , Bayong , Bogo, licingan ( Bms. ) , curses ( Jw. ) , Kabos ( Mhs. ) and others . In the English language is also called by various names such as the common snakehead , snakehead Murrel , chevron snakehead , striped snakehead and also Aruan . Scientific name is Channa striata ( Bloch , 1793 ) .

Pemerian .

Ground fish large enough , can grow up to a length of 1 m . Somewhat flattened like a big-headed snake 's head ( so named snakehead ) , with large scales on top of head . Gilig elongated rounded body , such as guided missiles . Elongated dorsal fin and tail fin rounded at the ends .
The upper side of the body - from head to tail - dark , brownish or greenish black . The underside white , began to rear chin . The side thick streaky - streak ( striata , streaked with graffiti ) are rather vague . This color is often resemble the surrounding environment . Mouth large , with big teeth and sharp .

Habit .

Catfish commonly found in lakes , swamps , rivers , and waterways up to the paddy fields. These fish prey on a variety of small fish , insects , and a variety of other aquatic animals , including tadpoles and frogs .
Often fish cork brought flooding to the trenches around the house , or into the maintenance of fish ponds and become pests that prey on pet fish there . If the rice fields , pond or ditch dries up , the fish will seek to move to another place , or if unavoidable , will bury themselves in the mud to place it back watery . Therefore, these fish often encountered ' walk' on land , especially at night in the dry season , look elsewhere still runny . This phenomenon is because the cork has the ability to breathe directly from the air , using a kind of labyrinth organ ( such as catfish or damselfish ) but more primitive .
In the breeding season , male and female fish cooperated in preparing the nest between plants near the water's edge . Children fish red orange black stripes , swim in groups working together to and fro in search of food . This young group unattended by a parent .

Deployment .

Widespread catfish ranging from Pakistan to the west , southern Nepal , most parts of India , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , southern China , and most areas in Southeast Asia , including Indonesia .

The diversity of type .

Cork and relatives including animals of the Old World, from Asia (genus Channa) and Africa ( genus Parachanna ). Altogether there are about 30 species of these two genera .
In Indonesia there are several species of Channa ; are all naturally spread to the west of the Wallace Line . But now the cork has been introduced into the eastern part anyway .
One cork is a close relative of fish toman ( Channa micropeltes ) , the body length can exceed 1 m and weighing more than 5 kg .

Benefits and Drawbacks .

Actually, cork fish have high economic value . Cork wild fish caught from rivers , lakes and swamps in Sumatra and Kalimantan often marinated before traded between islands . Cork salted dried fish is one that is quite expensive . Besides fresh catfish , mostly sold in a state of life , an important source of protein for rural communities , especially those adjacent to marshy areas or river .
Catfish bait fish which is also enjoyable . With live bait such as insects or frogs child , cork fished relatively easy . However, sharp teeth and a bolt and a strong pull , can be easily broken off pancing.Untuk rural communities , especially farmers , fish cork help exterminate pests , for example : a lot of rice fields inhabited by snails , often leads to crop failure , result of the act of consuming rice snails that often , especially at a young age . However, some farmers find ways that are easy and very helpful , that is , with the cork fish breed in rice fields being in garapnya , with so many snails that harm farmers will gradually decrease ,
But these fish can also be very detrimental , ie, when entered into pisciculture ponds ( Though some relatives cork in Asia also deliberately bred as pet fish ) . Cork very greedy prey on small fish , so they can spend fish reared in ponds , especially if the pet fish was still small . Fish species penganggu cork also be no.1 in Sulawesi and Irian Jaya because they have destroyed native fish speesies .
Since a few years ago in North America , these fish and some close relatives who are equally wary of including snakehead fishes as dangerous fish , which could threaten the sustainability of aquatic biota there . The types of snakehead actually enter the United States as an aquarium fish . Likely due to carelessness , the snakehead is now also found in nature, in the rivers and ponds in the United States. And because it is wild and invasive , the American government worried the fish would quickly spread and damage the balance of natural waters .

Cork for health .

Kandangan typical rhombus with a side dish of fish Kandangan Haruan ( catfish )
It is known that this fish is very rich in albumin , a type of protein is important . Albumin human body needs every day , especially in the healing process of wounds . Provision of fish meat protein extract cork or has attempted to increase the levels of albumin in the blood and help cure some diseases .

picture ;

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DatePublished: February 14, 2014 at 13:47

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Story Fierce Kelud eruption.

Kelud recorded several times erupted. Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (PVMBG) noted, the most severe eruption Kelud occurred in 1919.

The first eruption occurred in 1000. After that, Kelud erupted in 1901.

"In 1901, the material released was about 200 million cubic meters," said Head of Disaster Mitigation, Earthquake, and the Land Movement PVMBG, Gede Suantika, Thursday (02/13/2014).
The next eruption in 1919 and the worst in the history of the eruption of Mount Kelud. "Material eruption thrown approximately 284 million cubic meters. Victim 5.160 people died there," he said.
In 1951, a mountain with an altitude of 1,731 meters above sea level (masl) was re-erupted. Materials eruption released quite a lot, approximately 200 million cubic meters.
The eruption occurred back in 1966. When the eruption of material released is much less than the previous eruption. "It was the material released 90 million cubic meters," he said.
Gede said, the next eruption in 1990. Materials eruptions approximately 130 million cubic meters. In 2007 eruptions occur with recorded material released at least Kelud eruptions in history.
"In 2007 I measured the material issued approximately 15 million cubic meters," he explained.
Kelud itself including the type stratovolcano. Eruptions are daily. It was different from the eruption of Mount Sinabung which occurs continuously within a few days, weeks, even months.
The difference, Kelud eruption was brief, but very much material removed. In 1990 for example, only last eruption in the next two to three hours. But the material issued reached 130 million.
"This Kelud large eruptions. Compared with Sinabung, more horror Kelud this," said Gede.
Before Kelud erupted, overnight, PVMBG predict eruptions materials more than 100 million cubic meters. Materials issued in the form of ash, rocks, lava and hot clouds avalanches.
Material is expected to lead to the west by a distance of more than 15 kilometers. While avalanches of hot clouds will reach six kilometers.

Rain Sand & Gravel of a marble to Malang .

Impact Kelud eruption at approximately 22:55 pm, up to the region of Malang. The rain of ash and gravel flushed area bordering Malang, Blitar like in District Kepanjen and areas to the west.
Regions such as the western part of Malang in Batu, Ngantang, and also the surrounding rain of ash and gravel of a marble.
Police Officer City of Stone is currently shut-Kediri Ngantang path because it was raining ash and gravel. Police urged residents to be stone towards Kediri use the other line or through Mojokerto, Jombang, Kediri.
Meanwhile, up to now the situation in Malang sky looked dark and occasional lightning broke the darkness accompanied by the rumbling of Kelud.

Myth.

Kelud eruption and Revenge Ox Sura.
Kelud erupted on Thursday (13/2) at approximately 22:50 pm. Kelud which in Dutch is called Klut, or Kloete is a volcano located on the border between Kediri, Blitar and Malang Regency.
In folklore around Kelud, eruptions are often associated with legends feud ruler of Majapahit, Brawijaya with Ox King Sura, a young man who described headed bovine (cow).
Residents believe, the eruptions associated with the Ox Sura revenge. Narrated, King Brawijaya have a beautiful daughter that is Dyah Ayu Pusparani. Many kings and princes who apply to become empress.
Prabu Brawijaya confused choosing suitor and eventually hold a contest. Whoever can stretch magic bow and can lift Garodayaksa Kyai Kyai Sekardelima gong, he is entitled to marry the Princess Pusparani.
Sura ox was eventually follow the contest. He managed to stretch the bow and lifted the huge gong with ease.
Raden Cow Sura or also known as Raden Wimba was considered entitled to marry Dyah Ayu Pusparani. Unfortunately, Pusparini reluctant to marry because Sura ox, the bull-headed young man.
Pusparini was again, a precondition to the Ox Sura if you want to marry her. He was ordered to make a well in the summit of Mount Kelud. "Make me well at the top of Kelud. Well water that we use both a shower after completion of the marriage ceremony," pleaded Pusparini on Ox Sora.
So unfortunately the Pusparini, the request was granted. With horns, Cow Sura Kelud to the summit. When digging wells deep enough that, Pusparini again complained to her father, UB. Pusaparini refused to marry with Ox Sura.
UB can not refuse her request, until finally he ordered troops to bury Sura Calf digging wells in the Peak Kelud. Sura ox buried in the ground.
Before he died, Ox King UB Sura threatening. He considered the king of Majapahit had been betrayed. "Remember, every two tiger (16 years) so I will ravage the land and all who live in the kingdom."
Until now, every mountain erupts, people thought it was a raging ox Sura for revenge.

Image / picture  ;

So, thank you for reading this article. Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno.
sunarnobambang86@gmail.com
author:
http://schema.org/Personal.
https://plus.google.com/105319704331231770941.
name: Bambang Sunarno.
http://primadonablog.blogspot.com/2014/02/story-fierce-kelud-eruption.html
DatePublished: February 14, 2014 at 12:25
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Tag ; Story Fierce Kelud eruption, kelud.

Did you know Bird Penguin.

Birds Penguins (order Sphenisciformes, family Spheniscidae) are included in one group of animals aquatic birds that can not fly, but it is a very accomplished swimmer, because it can rapidly flapping his arms. This bird is a type of bird that lives only in the southern hemisphere, it's because of the cold temperatures there.

Species and habitats. 

Around the world there are 17 to 19 penguin species, depending on whether the two species as well as species Eudyptula calculated. Although all types of penguins originally came from the southern hemisphere, but penguins are not found only in cold regions or in the Antarctic. There are three species of penguins that live in the tropics. One of the species living in the Galapagos Islands (Galapagos Penguin) and usually cross the equator in search of food.

Size. 

The largest penguin species is the Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) with up to 1.1 meters high and weighing 35 pounds or more.
The smallest penguin species is the Fairy Penguin (Eudyptula Minor) with a height of about 40 cm and a weight of one kilogram. In general, large penguin more able to maintain their body temperature so that it can survive in colder regions, while smaller penguins are generally found in warmer regions and even the tropics.

Food. 

Generally penguins eat krill (a type of shellfish), fish, squid and other aquatic animals are caught while swimming in the ocean. Penguins can drink sea water because the body supraorbital gland filters excess salt from the sea of ​​blood flow. Salt is then issued in the form of liquid through the respiratory tract penguins.

Penguin behavior. 

Penguin looks not afraid of human presence. They will be closer to the group of researchers who are studying them.
However, one major form of contention between the penguin would happen if a mother penguin loses her son (because they can not survive in a big storm or eaten by predators). If a child is lost, the penguin mother will "steal" a child of a mother penguin penguins others. This behavior attracted the attention of scientists. Interestingly, another female penguin penguin-group of the penguins do not like "theft" and will help and "defend" his mother penguins were stolen.

Body Style 

The body is very appropriate penguins to swim and live in the water. Rower and the wings are not able to fly. On land penguins using tail and wings to maintain balance when walking.
Each penguin has a white color on the inside of his body and a dark color (usually black) on the outside of the body. It is useful for camouflage. Predators such as sea lions from the water will be difficult to see the penguins belly is white because it mixes with sea water surface reflection. While the dark surface of a penguin on his back also disguise of sight of predators on the water.

The ability to swim and dive.

Penguins were able to swim at speeds of 6 to 12 km / h even on record to 27km/jam. Small penguins normally dive for one to two minutes from the water surface to catch food. Larger-sized penguins, emperor penguins can dive is deeper, to 565 meters for 20 minutes.

Running and sliding. 

To save energy, sometimes a penguin walking with short legs or sliding in the snow with his stomach.

Sensing capabilities. 

Penguins have very good hearing. If on land, penguins relies heavily on his hearing. Eye penguins adapt to vision under water in search of food and avoid predators. The ability of olfactory penguin is still not widely known and requires further research.

Sex. 

To see the penguin sex is very difficult, because penguins have no external genitalia. Consequently to distinguish the sex of penguins, humans must wear a chromosome examination techniques / DNA.

A Penguin loyalty 

Around the world there are 17 to 19 penguin species, depending on whether the two species as well as species Eudyptula calculated. Although all types of penguins originally came from the southern hemisphere, but penguins are not found only in cold regions or in the Antarctic. There are three species of penguins that live in the tropics. One of the species living in the Galapagos Islands (Galapagos Penguin) and usually cross the equator in search of food.
The largest penguin species is the Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) with up to 1.1 meters high and weighing 35 pounds or more. The smallest penguin species is the Fairy Penguin (Eudyptula Minor) with a height of about 40 cm and a weight of one kilogram. In general, large penguin more able to maintain their body temperature so that it can survive in colder regions, while smaller penguins are generally found in warmer regions and even the tropics.
Why penguins? Because this animal is an animal that is most faithful to their partner.
Once paired, it will be monogamous. The same pair will generally return to the same colony and often return to the same nest each year. As many as 80-90 percent of them will stay together throughout the breeding seasons in a row, but the rest can last up to 10 years together. In fact, their life expectancy is only 13-15 years old.
Penguins have a "marriage" strange. The penguin couples spend their time with other separate and only met once at the end of March, after running along about 70 miles or 112 km on land, whether they are running or rolling away. After that, the penguins look their mate by way of whistling.
Male penguins stay in one place, lower than the head and chest to call the female. Once they meet each other, they would stand at chest level, then each whistling and singing. Well, after that it's time for the mating period. When he was laying, the female penguins stream it carefully to her partner (if the egg touches the ice and freezes it will then die), for it to be always kept eggs warm.
Female penguin then go to sea to feed, leaving the male penguins without food for two months. The male penguins gather together in one big collection in order to preserve the body for warmth in the cold and harsh environments, such as high winds reaching 120 mph (200 km per hour). When the female returned, she found her partner and their children grew up listening to the new penguin whistles from hundreds of other penguins.
Penguins star is a monogamous, where they only have one pair mating only. If they can not find their spouse in the upcoming season (and most can not find where approximately 15% of couples who can only meet each other in the next year, and only 5% in the third year to meet each other) they will find a new partner.
These penguins split almost many months, but incredibly, the male penguins never forget with her partner. So , thank you for reading this article .
Written and posted by Bambang Sunarno.  sunarnobambang86@gmail.com
author:
http://schema.org/Personal.
https://plus.google.com/105319704331231770941.
name: Bambang Sunarno.
http://primadonablog.blogspot.com/2014/02/did-you-know-bird-penguin.html
DatePublished: February 13, 2014 at 21:34
7MHPNPADAEFW
Tag ; Did you know Bird Penguin, birds penguin.